Bangladesh: Situation and treatment of Hindu Manipuri ethnic minority, including women; ability of women, particularly Manipuri women, to relocate and access housing and employment within Bangladesh (2006-October 2013)

1. Situation and Treatment of Hindu Manipuri

1.1 Overview

The Manipuri [also known as Meiteis (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 1.1; Banglapedia n.d.a] are an ethnic community in Bangladesh (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013; The Independent 27 Mar. 2008; ECDO 2006, 32). They are also described as an indigenous (or Adivasi) group, defined as "people with distinctive social and cultural practices, languages and customs" (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 1.1). They originate from the Manipur state of India (ibid.; ECDO 2006, 32; Banglapedia n.d.a). Manipuri have their own language (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 2.6; AHRC 1 Oct. 2013; ECDO 2006, 32), as well as distinctive racial and cultural features (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 1.1).

According to the CIA World Factbook, approximately 98 percent of the population is Bengali, with 89.5 percent Muslim and 9.6 percent Hindu (US 22 Aug. 2013). Manipuri are reportedly Hindu, but have rituals and practices that differ from the mainstream Hindu population in Bangladesh (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 4.15; Joshua Project n.d.). Some sources indicate that the Manipuri in Bangladesh are Hindu Dalits [also known as "untouchables"]-the lowest caste in the Hindu caste system (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013; The Joshua Project n.d.).

According to The State of the Rural Manipuris in Bangladesh, a 2006 study co-authored by an assistant professor of Social Work at the Shahjalal University of Science and Technology in Sylhet and a representative of the Sylhet-based NGO Ethnic Community Development Organization (ECDO), estimates of the number of Manipuri in Bangladesh range from 15,000 to 60,000 people (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 2.2). According to the 2011 census, there are 1,586,141 indigenous people in Bangladesh, accounting for 1.1 percent of the total population of 149,772,364 (Bangladesh 2011). However, the Kapaeeng Foundation, a Dhaka-based NGO that aims to protect the human rights of indigenous peoples in Bangladesh, estimates that there are over 54 indigenous groups in Bangladesh with a total population of over 3 million (2012, 19).

Manipuri reportedly live in Sylhet (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 1.1; Banglapedia n.d.a.; ECDO 2006, 32), Moulvibazar district (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 1.1; Banglapedia n.d.a; The Independent 27 Mar. 2008), Habiganj (Banglapedia n.d.b.; The Independent 27 Mar. 2008), and Sunamganj (ibid.). They reportedly live in both rural and urban areas of Sylhet due to increased assimilation and urbanization (ECDO 2006, 33).

The State of the Rural Manipuris in Bangladesh notes that Manipuris have their own local self-government, known as Leipaak (Community Mediation), although it is not legally recognized (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 4.15). Their community leadership is restricted to older men, whose duties include resolving community disputes (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 4.15). According to the study, Manipuri usually rely on this system rather than seek justice from police or courts (ibid.).

The same source notes that Manipuri generally live in a "joint family" structure, which includes husband, wife, children, daughter-in-law, son-in-law and grandchildren (ibid., Sec. 4.2). Early marriage, separation, divorce and polygamy are reportedly uncommon among the Manipuri (ibid., Sec. 4.1).

Sources indicate that the Manipuri's primary employment is in the agriculture sector and their main product is rice (ibid., Sec. 4.4; Joshua Project n.d.). Both men and women are reportedly engaged in farming (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 4.4). Other traditional occupations include carpentry, gold making, and auto mechanics, as well as handloom work by Manipuri women (ibid.). In a telephone interview with the Research Directorate, a program officer at the Bangladesh Desk of the Hong Kong-based Asian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) said that many Manipuri are "bonded labourers" working at tea plantations (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013).

Sources indicate that Manipuri children are educated in Bengali rather than in their native language (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 4.3; Banglapedia n.d.b). While the literacy rate among Manipuri is reportedly higher than the national average, few Manipuri attain higher education (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 5.1). According to another 2006 study by ECDO, less than one percent of Manipuri peopleobtain higher education (ECDO 2006, 32).

Sources indicate that many Manipuri live in poverty (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013; Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 5.1). According to the AHRC Program Officer, Manipuri families typically do not earn enough money for food and many are malnourished (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013). He also noted that many live in huts that house seven or eight family members (ibid.). The State of the Rural Manipuris in Bangladesh indicates that most Manipuri have small plots of land that are insufficient to meet the agricultural needs of their families (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 4.5). The study also states that Manipuri face an increasing threat of landlessness (ibid.). On their website, the ECDO explains that land issues "pose a huge threat to the livelihood and future of all indigenous communities in greater Sylhet region," as many communities do not have documents to prove ownership of the land (ECDO n.d.). ECDO notes that they are vulnerable to "land grabbing" by corrupt Bengali individuals and government official (ibid.).

1.2 Discrimination

Sources state that Manipuri are subject to discrimination (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013; Ahmmad and Singh 2006, Sec. 1.1). The State of the Rural Manipuris in Bangladesh indicates that Manipuri are subject to "systematic discrimination" in areas including education, employment, development activities and social relations (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 1.1). The study notes that Manipuri have little or no influence in local governments, and do not benefit from government development initiatives (ibid., Sec. 1.1 and 4.8). In addition, the study indicates that Manipuri have "limited access" to services and the government is "negligent towards their distinct needs" (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 5.1). In 2013 correspondence with the Research Directorate, the Executive Director of ECDO said that Manipuri people continue to have "little access to government and other social services provided by different stakeholders" (ECDO 2 Oct. 2013). He also noted that Manipuri in urban areas face problems due to their minority status, but he did not provide details (ibid.).

Similarly, the AHRC program officer explained that Manipuri

do not have adequate housing, access to health care or access to other services. While these are problems for many in Bangladesh, the Manipuri, as a minority, are more vulnerable. They are poor and lack political influence, so their needs are disregarded. (1 Oct. 2013)

The Program Officer also noted that, as Dalits, Manipuri face discrimination from upper caste Hindus (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013).

1.3 Violence

The State of the Rural Manipuris in Bangladesh notes that Manipuri people have had their crops, livestock and properties stolen or destroyed by Bengali people (Ahmmad and Singh 2006, Sec. 5.1).

The Daily Star, a Dhaka-based newspaper, reports that on 23 October 2012, the general secretary of the Manipuri youth organization Hojat Dalua was shot and killed in Moulvibazar (Daily Star 25 Oct. 2012; ibid. 4 Nov. 2012). The victim was reportedly attacked by three people while on his rickshaw (ibid. 25 Oct. 2012). Several organizations formed a protest to demand the immediate arrest and punishment of his killers, as well as to demand government action against "recent incidents of repression on Adivasis in Bangladesh" (ibid. 4 Nov. 2012). Further information about this incident could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

Regarding violence perpetrated against Manipuri, the AHRC Program Officer stated:

Manipuri may be subject to violence for political reasons or for local issues. They may also be subject to violence for being Dalits. Manipuri women in particular may be subject to violence against women. If the perpetrator is part of the party in power, he can commit these crimes with impunity, since there is no judicial remedy. (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013)

This information is partially corroborated by the Kapaeeng Foundation, which states that in general, indigenous people in Bangladesh

have been marginalized, discriminated [against] and deprived [of] enjoying the fundamental rights even as citizens of the country. The gross human rights violations such as killing, murder, violence against indigenous women and children, non-equality and discrimination, religious persecution among many others have increased in 2012. (Kapaeeng Foundation 2012, 28-29)

In addition, this source states that crimes against indigenous people are committed with impunity, and that the "culture of impunity" further increases human rights abuses against indigenous people (ibid.).

1.4 Manipuri Women

The State of the Rural Manipuris in Bangladesh notes that the Manipuri community is "male-dominant" and men have "sole authority regarding family and community affairs" (Ahmmed and Singh 2006, Sec. 4.15). It further states that women's role in decision-making is "limited," which undermines gender equality in Manipuri communities (ibid. 2006, Sec. 4.15).

The AHRC Program Officer described the situation of Manipuri women as follows:

Manipuri women tend to be very malnourished and live a life of deprivation. They do not have dignity either inside or outside the community. The media does not report on them and there is little news of them.

...

Manipuri women marry within the same community. They are voiceless and almost friendless compared to the mainstream. They live in remote areas and are isolated by society. (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013)

The Kapaeeng Foundation states that indigenous women in Bangladesh face "double discrimination" based on ethnicity and gender, and experience discrimination both in their own communities and in the surrounding society (2012, 117). The same source notes that rights violations include a "lack of participation in decision-making processes, lack of control over income to sustain themselves and their families, lack of land rights, lack of access to education, lack of access to health facilities, domestic violence, and sexual violence in situations of armed conflict and militarization" (Kapaeeng Foundation 2012, 117).

According to the UN office in Bangladesh, both women and minorities are among "the most marginalized groups" in Bangladesh (UN n.d.). The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) notes that women from minority groups, including Dalit women, "suffer from multiple forms of discrimination, especially with regard to access to education, employment and health care, protection from violence and access to justice" (UN 4 Feb. 2011, para. 37). The UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women similarly noted that "minority groups generally, and women in particular, suffer multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination in various areas of life," including "cases of violence or threats of violence against tribal/indigenous women by settlers as a tactic used to scare them off their land" (UN 29 Mar. 2013).

The Kapaeeng Foundation states that violence against indigenous women is a "major issue" in Bangladesh, but that in almost all cases perpetrators have "absolute impunity due to lack of access to justice" (2012, 121). The same source notes that of 120 cases of violence against indigenous women that were filed with local police stations between 2007 and 2012, no one had been prosecuted through the formal justice system as of 2012 (Kapaeeng Foundation 2012, 121). The majority of these cases were reportedly sexual violence perpetrated by the majority Bengali population (ibid.).

2. Ability of Women to Relocate

2.1 General Situation for Women to Access Employment and Housing

The UN Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) notes that poverty among women in Bangladesh is "widespread" (UN 4 Feb. 2011, para. 33). CEDAW also indicates that women in Bangladesh face "persisten[t] discrimination" in employment, including lower wages and exploitation (ibid., para. 29).

In correspondence with the Research Directorate, the Director of Research Initiatives Bangladesh, an organization that funds research for poverty alleviation and development in Bangladesh, stated that single, divorced and widowed women in Bangladesh experience "immense difficulties" accessing housing and employment (Research Initiatives Bangladesh 2 Oct. 2013). She also indicated that there are minimal social services available that only benefit widows, elderly and pregnant women (ibid.).

A professor of anthropology at BRAC University in Dhaka, in correspondence with the Research Directorate, said:

Access to housing for single women - divorced, widowed, separated or never-married - is much more difficult than it is for single men or married women. Women without 'male guardians' are generally viewed with considerable suspicion, as sexually dangerous and morally lax. Most landlords are incredibly reluctant to rent their houses to single women. Living by oneself opens women up to all kinds of sexual harassment, especially if the women are not from affluent families. (Professor 2 Oct. 2013)

In terms of employment, she noted that it is more difficult for single women to access work, particularly women from the middle classes (ibid.). She noted that many poor women work under "gruelling, dangerous conditions" in the garment industry or as domestic maids (ibid.). The UN Special Rapporteur noted the "poor working conditions" faced by many women in Bangladesh and said the lack of regulations "increases their vulnerability to abuse and exploitation" (UN 29 Mar. 2013).

In terms of women's ability to relocate on their own to other areas of Bangladesh, the Professor of Anthropology stated:

As in other arenas, single women's relocation to other parts of the country is much more difficult. In the absence of state services, people rely on kinship ties and an active system of social support from the local community to get by. A newly divorced or single woman relocating will have none of the advantages of social ties but all of the disadvantages of being without a male protector. (Professor 2 Oct. 2013)

A visiting scholar at the Center for Women, Gender and Sexuality at Rice University, who was also an associate professor of law at the University of Dhaka, noted that in rural areas of Bangladesh, young women who are unaccompanied by male guardians are "socially ostracised" and that single and divorced women, in general, are looked down upon by society (Visiting Scholar 3 Oct. 2013). She noted that single, divorced, and widowed women in Bangladesh "do not have sufficient resources to build a sustainable life" (ibid.). She further said that if they relocate, it is more difficult for them and they face the possibility of "re-victimization" (ibid.). The AHRC reports that women are not safe walking unaccompanied by a man in most parts of Bangladesh, and that women and girls are "almost regularly" victims of stalking and sexual violence (AHRC 8 Mar. 2012).

Sources indicate that landlords in Bangladesh may require a male co-signer to rent an apartment, although this is not a legal requirement (Research Initiatives Bangladesh 2 Oct. 2013; Visiting Scholar 3 Oct. 2013; Professor 2 Oct. 2013). The extent to which a male co-signer is needed varied among sources: The AHRC Program Officer said that a male co-signer, such as a husband or brother, is needed for "most ordinary women," but there are some exceptions, such as for movie stars or famous politicians (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013), whereas the Director of Research Initiatives Bangladesh said that "sometimes" a male co-signer is needed but "often" is not needed, depending on the landowner and the location (2 Oct. 2013).

2.2 Ability of Manipuri Women to Relocate and Access Employment and Housing

The Director of Research Initiatives Bangladesh noted that Hindu personal laws do not grant women a right to inheritance, so Manipuri women "will face problems in having a good resource base independently" (Research Initiatives Bangladesh 2 Oct. 2013). Other sources corroborate that Hindu personal laws in Bangladesh discriminate against women, and many women who separate face poverty due to a lack of legal recourse (US 19 Apr. 2013, 26; Human Rights Watch 16 Sept. 2012).

The ECDO Executive Director said that Manipuri women may face discrimination when trying to rent an apartment because they are indigenous women (ECDO 2 Oct. 2013). He added that they would also have difficulty finding employment due to the high unemployment rate in general, as well as difficulty in setting up work in their traditional handloom industry (ibid.).

The Professor at BRAC University said, "Hindu Manipuri women are triple minorities - religion, ethnicity and gender all make them incredibly vulnerable to violence, abuse and exploitation" (2 Oct. 2013). She expressed certainty that "accessing housing, employment or services from the police will be enormously, triply difficult for a Hindu Manipuri woman" (Professor 2 Oct. 2013).

Similarly, the AHRC Program Officer said that without help from a man, "it would be unbelievably difficult for a Manipuri woman to access employment, housing or social services" (AHRC 1 Oct. 2013). He also expressed the viewpoint that a Manipuri woman on her own would be unable to get assistance "in any part of the country" (ibid.).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

References

Ahmmed, Md. Faisal and Lakshmikanta Singh. 2006. The State of the Rural Manipuris in Bangladesh. [Accessed 25 Sept. 2013]

Asian Human Rights Commission (AHRC). 1 October 2013. Telephone interview of a program officer at the Bangladesh Desk by the Research Directorate.

_____. 8 March 2012. "Bangladesh: Women's Day-Women Deserve Equal Dignity and Protection from Violence and Discrimination." [Accessed 1 Oct. 2013]

Banglapedia. N.d.a. "The Manipuri." [Accessed 25 Sept. 2013]

_____. N.d.b. "Tribal Languages." [Accessed 25 Sept. 2013]

Bangladesh. 2011. "Population and Housing Census 2011." [Accessed 7 Oct. 2013]

The Daily Star [Dhaka]. 4 November 2012. "Punishment to Manipuri Leader's Killers Demanded." [Accessed 1 Oct. 2013]

_____. 25 October 2012. "Teacher Murdered in Moulvibazar." [Accessed 1 Oct. 2013]

Ethnic Community Development Organization (ECDO). 2 October 2013. Correspondence from the Executive Director to the Research Directorate.

_____. 2006. Louise Elizabeth Saunderson. "The Adaptation and Immersion of Minority Cultures to a Predominately Mono-Cultural Nation." [Accessed 25 Sept. 2013]

_____. N.d. "Current Situation-Past and Present." [Accessed 30 Sept. 2013]

Human Rights Watch. 16 September 2012. "Bangladesh: Discriminatory Family Laws Fuel Female Poverty." [Accessed 1 Oct. 2013]

The Independent. 27 March 2008. "The Manipuri." [Accessed 25 Sept. 2013]

Joshua Project. N.d. "Manipuri, Meitei of Bangladesh." [Accessed 25 Sept. 2013]

Kapaeeng Foundation. 2012. Human Rights Report 2012 on Indigenous Peoples in Bangladesh. [Accessed 7 Oct. 2013]

Professor, Anthropology Department, BRAC University. 2 October 2013. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Research Initiatives Bangladesh. 2 October 2013. Correspondence from the Director to the Research Directorate.

United Nations (UN). 29 March 2013. "Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences Finalises Country Mission to Bangladesh." [Accessed 3 Oct. 2013]

_____. 4 February 2011. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). "Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women: Bangladesh." [Accessed 3 Oct. 2013]

_____. N.d. UN Country Team Bangladesh. "About Bangladesh." [Accessed 1 Oct. 2013]

United States (US). 22 August 2013. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)."Bangladesh." The World Factbook. [Accessed 7 Oct. 2013]

_____. 19 April 2013. Department of State. "Bangladesh." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012. [Accessed 25 Sept. 2013]

Visiting Scholar, Center for Women, Gender and Sexuality, Rice University, Texas. 3 October 2013. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Attempts to contact the following representatives were unsuccessful: Bangladesh National Woman Lawyer's Association; Bangladesh Women's Foundation; Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission; Manipuri Association of Canada; Bangladesh - Multi-Sector Programme on Violence Against Women; and professors at Shahjalal University, University of Dhaka, and University of Massachusetts in Boston. Professors at Rice University and University of Oregon were unable to provide information.

Internet sites, including: Amnesty International; Asian Centre for Human Rights; Bangladesh - Ministry of Women and Children, Multi-Sector Programme on Violence Against Women, Prime Minister's Office; Bangladesh Human Rights Network; BRAC; ecoi.net; Factiva; Freedom House; International Women's Rights Action Watch (IWRAW); Journal of South Asia Women Studies; Manipuri Association of Canada; Minority Rights Group International; Odhikar; United Nations - Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Refworld, UN Development Programme, UN Office in Bangladesh, UN Women.