World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Vietnam

Environment

A small but very heavily populated country, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is at the eastern end of South-East Asia and borders the People's Republic of China to the north, Laos to the west, Cambodia to the south-west, and the South China Sea to the east. Its elongated surface consists of mainly hills and densely forested mountains.

History

Chinese dominated the region from the first century BCE until the tenth century CE, and left an indelible mark on Vietnamese culture, language and society. Much of Vietnamese history is an account of expansion from the Red River delta to the Mekong delta, an advance not completed until the late eighteenth century. Fighting with the kingdom of Champa, which occupied what is now central Vietnam, continued for 900 years until the Chams, a Malay-Polynesian people, were subjugated in the late seventeenth century. Following the defeat of Champa, the Vietnamese pursued military campaigns against the kingdom of the Khmer (Cambodia) in the Mekong delta, including what is now Ho Chi Minh City. While the defeat of Champa brought a virtual end to a distinct Cham society in Vietnam, ethnic Khmer retain an important presence in the delta area.

The expansion of Vietnam led to greater regionalism in politics. This resulted in the division of the country at roughly the 18th parallel (the line that divided North from South Vietnam from 1954 to 1976). This division continued from 1620 until 1802 when the southern emperor Gia Long, with the aid of the French, reunified the country. Sixty years later, the French began to wrest political control from the Vietnamese. The present borders of Vietnam were defined by French military action between 1858 and 1883. Except for a period of Japanese occupation during the Second World War, French colonial rule continued until defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.

Vietnam suffered enormous devastation and loss of life during the three Indochina wars. The first, lasting from the late 1940s until 1954, ended with independence from the French. The country was then divided into the Republic of Vietnam (South) and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North). During the American phase of the second Indochinese war, which lasted from the mid-1960s until the Paris Peace Accords of 1973, the country's infrastructure was virtually destroyed. The victory of North over South Vietnam in 1975 reunified the country. The third Indochinese war saw Vietnam invade Cambodia in 1978 and the Chinese invade northern Vietnam the following year. These events caused the massive departure of ethnic Chinese 'boat people' in the 1980s.

The general policy of the Vietnamese government towards most minorities, and especially those who were perceived as having sided with American forces, was aggressive and even in some cases brutal until the 1990s: Vietnamese was the almost exclusive language of education; expropriation of land and resources occurred, combined with the resettlement of ethnic Kinh in traditional minority regions and the forced movement of indigenous and minorities away from traditional villages to permanent settlements. During the same period, the creation of 'New Economic Zones' led to an influx of mainly ethnic Kinh into these zones, usually with the official support of the government, in the central highlands and close to the border with China.

After 1985, the adoption of the more liberal Doi Moi policies softened the treatment of minorities, with some official recognition and use of minority languages in schools, and - at least in terms of the attitude of officials and the recognition minorities - some improvement has been made.

Despite the limited economic liberalization which ensued, the human rights situation has not changed significantly overall. Though there are rights enshrined in Vietnam's Constitution, these are hampered by a number of numerous duties and the absence of constitutional and administrative courts and an independent judiciary.

Peoples

Main languages: Vietnamese, Hoa (Chinese), Khmer, Tai, Hmong

Main religions: Buddhism, Roman Catholicism, indigenous syncretic religions, animism

Main minority groups: Tay 1.9% (1.47 million), Thai 1.7% (1.3 million), Muong 1.5% (1.1 million), Khmer Krom 1.4% (1 million), Hoa (Chinese) 1.1% (862,371), Nung 1.1% (856,412), Hmong 1% (787,604), others 4.1% (1999 Census)

The vast majority of Vietnam's population in the 1999 Census were ethnic Viet or Kinh (65.8 million, or 86.2% out of a total population of 76.3 million), and speak the Vietnamese language. Vietnam's population in 2005 was estimated to be 85 million. Most Kinh were followers of Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism prior to the Indochina wars, though official figures indicate more than 80 per cent of them today have no religious affiliation.

Ethnic Kinh tended to be concentrated in about half of the country's territory, especially in coastal and low-lying areas, and have been engaged in intensive irrigated-rice cultivation and fishing, though that pattern is increasingly changing.

Most of the remaining 53 official ethnic groups (though not all of the country's minorities are part of this officially recognized list) inhabit the interior mountainous and highlands, though some, such as the Khmer Krom, Hoa and Lao, are concentrated in the cities or lowlands. Most of the other many remaining minorities tend to live in the mountains of the north, down the Truong Son mountain range, and in the central highlands. These include a huge diversity in terms of languages, origins, religions and even scripts used, and according to the 1999 Census represented 13.8 per cent of the country's population, or 10.5 million people.

The three largest minorities are the Tay, who belong to the central Tai-Kadai language group and are located in the north of Vietnam where their villages tend to be based at the feet of mountains with about 15-20 households each; the closely related Thai are believed to have arrived in Vietnam earlier than the Tay, and they are concentrated in the north-west and western parts of north Vietnam. The Muong also inhabit the mountainous region of northern Vietnam, and are generally found in Hoa Binh and Thanh Hoa province. Their language is a Vietic language, closely related to Vietnamese.

The fourth largest minority are the Khmer Krom, and they are now thought to number more than 1.3 million people and are found concentrated in the south, in the delta region of the Mekong River. They are ethnic Khmer and are often considered to be indigenous, as they have inhabited the Mekong delta since before the arrival of the Vietnamese. Their language, Khmer, is part of the Mon-Khmer branch of Austroasiatic languages, and most of them are Buddhists.

One group of more than 30 minorities often lumped together are the Degar, sometimes referred to as Montagnards, a French term related to their presence in the highlands of Vietnam, though this was limited to the central highlands area. Except for their traditionally inhabiting highlands, these groups have in fact different cultures and their languages belong to two distinct family groups, the Malayo-Polynesian and Mon-Khmer. Their total numbers is subject to some debate, though they possibly number between 1 and 2 million people. Among the largest groups are the Jarai, Rhade and Bahnar.

There is some controversy as to the size of the Chinese minority in Vietnam: official figures tend to float around the 1 million figure, but outside sources tend to suggest a higher number. Not all Chinese (known as Hoa) are officially recognized by the government of Vietnam: the Hoa category excludes the San Diu (mountain Chinese) and the Ngai. Most Hoa are descended from Chinese settlers who came from the Guangdong province from about the eighteenth century, and it is for this reason that most of them today speak Cantonese, though there is also a large group who speak Teochew.

There are a number of religious minorities, including significant Catholic and Protestant minorities, the Cao Dai and Hoa Hao, which both originated in the Mekong River delta during the nineteenth century (both native and distinct Buddhist sects), as well as Sunni and Bashi Muslims in the south and among the Chams (with perhaps 15 per cent of the Chams still adherents of Hinduism). The latter's language belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family, and they are generally thought to be descendants of the ancient kingdom of Champa.

Governance

Despite considerable economic gains in recent years, the country as a whole remains one of Asia's poorest. The 1990s in particular saw a huge reductions in poverty: from 58 per cent in 1993 to 29 per cent in 2002. A number of reports point out, however, that ethnic minorities continue to suffer disproportionately from poverty, accounting by some estimates for 29 per cent of the poor but only 14 per cent of the population. The move towards a free market (Doi Moi) in the late 1980s was not matched by greater political freedom. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) does not tolerate dissent. Freedom of movement, expression and association remain tightly constricted.

At first glance the constitution of Vietnam is highly receptive to, and recognizes, minority communities, and particularly those in the highlands. Numerous provisions refer to the need to prioritize educational and development programmes so as to assist minorities. Most of these constitutional provisions remain for the most part vague aspirations, and in most matters where the rights of minorities might have a significant impact - the language of education and employment for civil service positions in the regions where minorities are most numerous, and the right to own or use traditional land and resources, for example - the constitution is silent. Finally, the exercise of these rights seems to be further restrained by provisions in the constitution as well as other legislation which suggest these rights must comply with 'the interests and policies of the state'. In the context of Vietnam, this often appears to be closely connected to the interests of the ethnic Kinh.

Despite some movement to liberalize the economy, Vietnam remains a one-party state under the firm control of the Communist Party of Vietnam. It continues to suppress political dissent, and independent non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are not permitted to operate freely in the country. Despite the stated commitments towards respecting and assisting minorities, there are continued discriminatory policies which tend to favour the ethnic Kinh (in terms of language, access to jobs, land ownership, etc.) which cannot be addressed directly or effectively by minorities because of a lack of legal measures to protect their rights and the absence of an independent judiciary. This periodically leads to minority demonstrations and even violence against authorities or ethnic Kinh.

Minorities

• Chinese (Hoa)
• Highland minorities
• Khmer

Resources

Minority based and advocacy organisations

Action for Democracy in Vietnam (Que Me)
Tel: +33 1 45 98 30 85
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.queme.net/eng/contact.php

Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development (Forum-Asia)
Tel: +66 2391 8801
Website: http://www.forum-asia.org

Committee For Religious Freedom in Vietnam (CRFV)
Tel: +1-301-365-2489
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.crfv.org/

Fédération internationale des ligues des droits de l'Homme
Website: http://www.fidh.org/

Highland Education Development Organisation (HEDO)
Tel: +84 4 8691223/8692502
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://hedo-vietnam.tripod.com/about.htm

HURIGHTS OSAKA
Tel: +816-6577-35-78
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.hurights.or.jp

Southeast Asia Resource Action Center
Tel: +1-202-667-4690
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.searac.org

South East Asian Mountain Peoples' for Culture and Development
Tel: +66- 053276194
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.hani-akha.org/mpcd/index.html

Vietnam Human Rights Network
Tel: +1-714-897-1950
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.vietnamhumanrights.net/IndexE.html

Sources and further reading

Amer, R., China, Vietnam and the Chinese Minority in Vietnam, Uppsala, Sweden, Uppsala University, 1993.

Bertelsmann Transformation index 2006: Vietnam, http://www.bertelsmann-transformation- index.de/fileadmin/pdf/en/2006/AsiaAndOceania/Vietnam.pdf

Dournes, J., Minorities of Central Vietnam, London, MRG report, 1980.

Ethnic Minorities of Vietnam, http://www.salemstate.edu/imc/vietnam/minorities.html

Ethnic Minority Development in Vietnam: A Socioeconomic Perspective, World Bank, Development Research Group, 2002. Available at http://www- wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2002/05/30/000094946_02051604452763/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf

Human Rights/Droits de l'homme, http://www.centralstation.net/lamletrinh/default.asp#english

Human Rights Issues in Vietnam, http://www.oakton.edu/user/wittman/rights.htm

Human Rights for Vietnam, http://ampact.net/vietnetworks/diendan.htm

International Movement for Religious Freedom and Human Rights in Vietnam, http://www.tudotgvn.org/

Kahin, George, Minorities in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, Asian Survey, University of California Press, 1972. Available at http://www.jstor.org/view/00044687/di014271/01p0240y/0

Lulei, Wilfried, Ethnic minorities in Vietnam, past and present, in Ethnic minorities and nationalism in Southeast Asia: festschrift, dedicated to Hans Dieter Kubitscheck, Peter Lang, 2000.

McElwee, Pamela, Becoming socialist or becoming Kinh? Government policies for ethnic minorities in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, in Civilizing the margins: Southeast Asian government policies for the development of minorities, Cornell University Press, 2004.

Michaud, Jean, Historical Dictionary of the Peoples of the Southeast Asian Massif, Scarecrow Press, 2006.

Minority Groups in the Republic of Vietnam, Department of the Army, Washington, 1966. Available at http://www.vietnam.ttu.edu/star/images/137/1370507001a.pdf

Pollock, A., Vietnam: Conflict and Change in Indochina, Melbourne, Oxford University Press, 1995.

Poverty Report, Ethnic Minorities, http://www.ngocentre.org.vn/file_lib/povertyreport.doc

Swinkels, Rob and Turk, Carrie, Explaining Ethnic Minority Poverty in Vietnam: A summary of recent trends and current challenges, Draft Background paper for CEM/MPI meeting on Ethnic Minority Poverty, Hanoi, World Bank, Vietnam, 2006. Available at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTVIETNAM/ Resources/Ethnic_Minority_Poverty_in_Vietnam7.doc

The Human Rights Situation in Vietnam, Vietnam Human Rights Network, August 2006. Available at http://www.vietnamhumanrights.net/english/documents/vnhrn_082006.htm< /p>

Theá, Buøi Khaùnh, Multilingual education in the community of minority peoples of Vietnam, National University Ho Chi Minh City, http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/bui_khanh_thea.pdf

Theis, J., Ethnic Minority Education: Problem Analysis and Programme Strategy, Hanoi: Save the Children 1999.

United Nations Development Programme and Vietnam, Committee on Ethnic Minorities and Montainous Areas (CEMMA), Project VIE96010 Strengthening Capacity in Policy Formulation and Management of Ethnic Minority Development in Viet Nam, Ethnic Minorities Populations in Vietnam 1979, 1989 and 1999, http://www.undp.org.vn/projects/vie96010/cemma/vie96010/populations.ht m

van de Walle, D., and Dileni Gunewardena, Causes of Ethnic Inequality in Viet Nam, World Bank, Washington D.C., 1999.

Viet Nam's cultural diversity: approaches to preservation. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2001.

Vietnam's Ethnic Minorities, http://www.vwam.com/vets/tribes/ethnicminorities.html

Vietnam Inequality Report 2005: Assessment and Policy Choices, Mekong Economics Ltd., 2005. Available at http://www.spp.nus.edu.sg/faculty/fritzen/fritzen-brassard- inequality.pdf

Vuong Xuan Tinh, Changing Land Policies and Its Impact on Land Tenure of Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam, East West Center, Honolulu, 2001.