World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Peru

Environment

Peru is located on the Pacific coast of South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil and Bolivia to the east and Chile to the south. Geographically, it has three distinct regions: a narrow coastal strip, the wide Andean mountain range and the Amazon rainforest. The coastal strip is mainly desert. The Andean region has wet and dry seasons, although the eastern Andes generally receive much more rainfall than the western slopes. Peru is divided up into 25 departments: in five of these (in the Andes) - Apurimac, Ayacucho, Cuzco, Huancavelica and Puno - indigenous Peruvians constitute a numerical majority.

History

In 1969 General Juan Velasco's radical military government initiated a far-reaching agrarian reform programme, with the objective of breaking up the hacienda system in Peru. However, the reform had more impact on the coastal region than the highlands, and, when undertaken in the highland regions, it largely involved the installation of state-run farms rather than the direct restitution of lands to indigenous and peasant communities. This helped to create rather than appease social conflict: a number of illegal land invasions took place during the period due to the lack of a state presence in the Andean and Amazonian regions. As a result, grassroots rondas campesinas (civil defence patrols) were formed in northern Peru to combat the local thefts, delinquency and land invasions after agrarian reform. The lack of state presence in rural areas is still a problem in Peru. Rondas campesinas continue to exist in northern Peru, while their relationship to the state (police and the military) remains ambivalent. In more recent years there has been a systematic abandonment of rural areas: in 1981 the rural population was 34.8 per cent of the total Peruvian population; in 1993 29.9 per cent; in 1997 28.3 per cent.

The Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces, led initially by Velasco, incorporated indigenous symbols into its identity. It recognized Quechua as an official language in areas with a high proportion of indigenous people (1976), promoted bilingual education and issued legislation to protect the rights of native and peasant communities in highland and lowland regions (1974). In 1987 the Peruvian Congress introduced a new agrarian law which threatened to expropriate 'unused' communal land in the highlands and make it available for business and development. The clause was withdrawn, however, after a major protest by national farming organizations and international support groups.

In 1980 the Maoist guerrilla group Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) burst onto the national political scene, burning ballot boxes and hanging dead dogs from lampposts. It originated in the province of Ayacucho but gradually spread to other regions, forcing the government to declare a state of emergency in more than half of the country. Initially many indigenous peasants supported Sendero, which appealed to excluded Andean populations as a grassroots ethnic movement, but its economic and political ideology disregarded and sought to destroy distinctive features of Andean life. Indigenous communities became increasingly wary of the organization's arbitrary violent methods. Despite the capture of Abimael Guzmán, Sendero remains active, although it no longer poses a significant threat to the Peruvian state: in total, the conflict between this guerrilla group and the Peruvian state authorities has claimed between 40,000 and 60,000 lives. Indigenous people have suffered the most; 75 per cent of the victims were Quechua-speakers and approximately 600,000 Quechua campesinos were displaced, fleeing from the conflict zones to the misery belts around Peru's major cities. Forty per cent of the violence took place in the Andean Department of Ayacucho; 68 per cent of people killed had no secondary education, 80 per cent of those killed were men and 54 per cent were married with families, leaving thousands of children orphaned.

Peoples

Main languages: Spanish, Quechua, Aymara, other indigenous languages

Main religions: Christianity (majority Roman Catholic and a growing number of evangelical Protestants), indigenous religions

Indigenous peoples include Achuar, Aguaruna, Ashaninka, Shipibo, Huambisa, Quechua and Aymara, who together comprise 45 per cent of the population.[1] Other minority groups include Afro-Peruvians, Chinese and Japanese (3%).[2]

There are 51 indigenous peoples in Peru. By far the most numerous are the highland Quechua. About 4.5 million Peruvians speak Quechua and 8 million identify themselves as Quechua.[3] The Aymara population of some 500,000[4] is concentrated in the southern highland region near Puno. Lowland indigenous groups include the Achuar, Aguaruna, Ashaninka, Huambisa, Quechua and Shipibo.

Despite the historical lack of a 'national' indigenous movement in Peru and a notable emphasis on class identity among peasant communities in Peru, highland organizations have recently come together to form the increasingly ethnically minded Coordinadora Nacional de Comunidades Afectados por la Minería (CONACAMI).

Native leaders in the Amazon (from Aguaruna, Huambisa, Ashaninka, Shipibo-Conibo, Amuesha and Cocama-Cocamilla communities) formed their own ethnic federations as early as the 1970s. In recent years they have focused their efforts on protesting against oil company invasion and demanding government recognition of their territorial rights. According to the Asociación Inter-étnica para el Desarrollo de la Selva Peruana (AIDESEP), created in 1980, Aguaruna communities have successfully reclaimed land invaded by settlers for production of cocoa and coffee.

Since the late 1990s umbrella organizations such as the Conferencia Permanente de los Pueblos Indígenas del Perú (Permanent Coordinator of Indigenous Peoples in Peru, COPPIP) have been established to unite Andean and Amazonian interests under one ethnic banner. In contrast to national and pan-national ethnic movements in Ecuador, indigenous activism is less visible in Peru, but it is no less present and manifests itself in multiple ways.

Peruvians of African descent tend to be concentrated in the southern coastal regions. In response to their experience of poverty, marginalization and racism, they have recently created organizations such as the Asociación pro Derechos Humanos del Negro and Asociación Palenque, which fights for the full achievement of equal rights.

Peru was among the first Latin American republics to establish diplomatic relations with the Japanese empire, in 1877, and issued a decree authorizing the immigration of contract labourers in 1898. Manual labour at sugar plantations and mills was the principal work. By the 1980s, Peruvians of Japanese descent totalled 48,000, the majority of whom lived in Lima. In 1990 a Japanese agronomist, Alberto Fujimori, became president. Many Japanese are owners or operators of small shops and bars, and they have made a significant contribution to the Peruvian economy. Today they constitute one of the country's most influential (both economically and politically) ethnic minorities.

Governance

Peasant community laws (Leyes de comunidades campesinas) were created in the 1970s as a result of agrarian reform. These laws granted residents of the new, autonomous 'peasant communities' collective rights to govern a geographically identified area of land as Peruvian citizens. Existing groups united with others to acquire deeds to land within a single community. Despite such advances, land conflict is still a major problem today.

Many national non-governmental organizations (NGOs) assisted Peru's indigenous groups in the demarcation and titling of their lands. Indigenous communities themselves have also become more politically organized, uniting with other minority groups to pressure the government about its economic and social policies. The use of fear and terror in counter-insurgency has diminished since Guzmán's capture (1992) and several important advances have been made in the area of indigenous rights legislation. The Peruvian Constitution of 1993 declares the state's duty to protect the ethnic and cultural diversity of the nation. It also acknowledges the right of indigenous communities to practise customary law. In April 1997, Congress passed a new law criminalizing racial discrimination, and since then there has been an important debate about the representation of indigenous peoples and other minority groups in the media. Black civil rights groups have also presented many cases of racial prejudice in the job application process in Peru.

However, there are still many problems. Sendero Luminoso continues to pose a threat in several areas, as does the violence surrounding the cocaine traffic. President Fujimori (1990-2000) reduced the status of the international treaties concerning human rights and rolled back indigenous land rights by removing the inalienability and indivisibility of indigenous communal lands. Seeking to encourage foreign investment and increase the exploitation of Peru's natural resources, he granted a large number of licences to forestry and oil companies, which have had a particularly negative impact on indigenous communities living in the Amazon basin. Indigenous claims to reject interventions of oil and mining companies on their lands have often failed because of a contradiction in the Peruvian legal system. While the subsoil currently belongs to Peru's national heritage, which the Peruvian state can grant transnational corporations access to for the purposes of extracting oil and minerals, peasant communities hold legal rights to the surface layer and therefore the right to restrict outside access to this land. The Peruvian state has recently dismissed indigenous claims to prevent foreign interventions, however, stating that they are not applicable in such cases. In Peru, royalty payments made by transnational corporations to benefit nearby communities affected by their mining activities are negotiated at around 1-3 per cent, while some larger mining companies have negotiated to pay no royalties at all. These figures fall below international standards.

Minorities

• Afro-Peruvians
• Ashaninka
• Aymara and highland Quechua

Resources

Minority based and advocacy organisations

Afro-Peruvians

Asociación Negra de Defensa y Promoción de los Derechos Humanos
Tel: +51 1 431 1183, 332 2335
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Website: www.asonedh.org

Centro de Desarrollo de la Mujer Negra Peruana
Email: [email protected]

Ashaninka

Asociación Interétnica para el Desarrollo de la Selva Peruana (AIDESEP)
Tel: +51 1 471 7118, 472 2683 265 5011
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Website: http://www.aidesep.org.pe

Asociación para la Conservación del Patrimonio del Cutivireni
Tel: +51 1 421 6197
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.geocities.com/acpcweb

Centro de Investigación y Promoción Amazónica (CIPA)
Tel: +51 1 446 4823
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.cipaperu.org

Comunidad Indígena Ashaninka (CIA)
Email: [email protected]

Aymara and Highland Quechua

Centro de Communicación, Capacitación y Cultura Arunakasa
Email: [email protected]

Consejo Indio de Sud-America
Tel: +51 1 426 9524
Email: [email protected]
Website: cisa- internacional.iespana.es

Coordinadora de Trabajo con Mujeres de Ayacucho
Email: [email protected]

La Confederación de la Nacionalidades Indígenas de Perú
Tel: +51 1 265 8867
Email: peruindí[email protected]
Website: http://www.willkapampa.org

Red Nacional Mujer Rural
Tel: +51 1 433 1457
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.flora.org.pe/red_mujer_rural

General

Amnesty International
Tel: +51 1 477 1360
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.amnistia.org.pe

Comisión Andina de Jurista
Tel: +51 1 440 7907, 442 8094
Website: www.cajpe.org.pe

Confederación de Nacionalidades Amazónicas del Perú
Tel: +51 1 423 8391
Email: [email protected]

Sources and further reading

Afro-Peruvians

Hooker, J., 'Indigenous inclusion, black exclusion: race, ethnicity and multicultural citizenship in contemporary Latin America', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 37, no. 2, 2005.

Luciano, J. and Rodriguez Pastor, H., 'Peru', in MRG (ed.), No Longer Invisible: Afro-Latin Americans Today, London, MRG, 1995.

Reid Andrews, G., Afro-Latin America, 1800 - 2000, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004.

World Bank, 'Indigenous and Afro-Peruvian development project', 2000, URL: www.wds.worldbank.org

Ashaninka

Green, S., 'Getting over the Andes: the geo-eco-politics of indigenous movements in Peru's twenty-first-century Inca empire', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 38, no. 2, 2006.

Rainforest Foundation, NGO-based in the UK [has helpful information about the Ashaninka in the Amazonian region; tells readers about the problems they face such as road building and illegal logging] http://www.rainforestfoundationuk.org/

The Forest Peoples Programme, NGO based in the Netherlands and the UK [raises awareness about indigenous communities in the Amazon that have chosen to live in inaccessible areas] http://www.forestpeoples.org/

Aymara and Highland Quechua

García, M.E., 'The politics of community: education, indigenous rights and ethnic mobilisation in Peru', Latin American Perspectives, vol. 30, no. 1, 2003.

Green, S., 'Incas, Indios and indigenism in Peru', NACLA Report on the Americas, vol. 38, no. 4, 2005.

Remy, I.M., 'The indigenous population and the construction of democracy in Peru', in D.L. Van Cott (ed.), Indigenous Peoples and Democracy in Latin America, London, Macmillan, 1994.

Comunidad Tawantinsuyu NGO [has useful information about traditional medicine practices among indigenous communities in Peru] http://www.comunidadtawantinsuyu.org/

Portal Cultural de la Región Andina [tells readers about recent news, events and different indigenous organizations in Latin America] http://www.quechuanetwork.org/

General

Allen, C.J., The Hold Life Has: Coca and Cultural Identity in an Andean Community, Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution, 1988.

Federación Internacional de los Derechos Humanos, Alternative Information to Peru's Report submitted to the Committee for the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination, March 1999.

Leyton, M. and Patrinos, H.A., 'Estimating the number of indigenous peoples in Latin America', in G. Hall and H.A. Patrinos (eds), Indigenous Peoples, Poverty and Development in Latin America, New York, Palgrave, 2006.

Peru Support Group, Mining and Development in Peru with Special Reference to the Rio Blanco Project, edited by A. Bebbington, M. Connarty, W. Coxshall, H. O'Shaughnessy and M. Williams, London, 2007.

Poole, D. and Renique, G., Peru: Time of Fear, London, Latin America Bureau, 1992.

Starn, O., Degregori, C.I. and Kirk, R. (eds), The Peru Reader: History, Culture, Politics, London, Latin America Bureau, 1996.

Takenyaka, A., 'The Japanese in Peru: history of immigration, settlement and racialisation', Latin American Perspectives, vol. 31, no. 3, 2004.

Van Cott, D.L., ' "It is not a priority": the failure to form viable ethnic parties in Peru', in D.L. Van Cott (ed.), From Movements to Parties in Latin America: The Evolution of Ethnic Politics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Notes

1. CIA, World Factbook, 2006.

2. CIA, World Factbook, 2006.

3. Estimates from Van Cott, D.L. (ed.), From Movements to Parties in Latin America: The Evolution of Ethnic Politics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

4. Ibid.