Ghana: Domestic violence, including legislation, state protection and support services (2011-2015)

1. Overview

According to a shadow report produced by a coalition of 50 civil society organizations in Ghana, and submitted to the Committee of the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), "[g]ender based violence remains alarmingly high" in Ghana (Civil Society Coalition Oct. 2014, 20). Amnesty International (AI) reports that in 2013 "violence against women and girls remained widespread" (AI 25 Feb. 2015, 163). According to a report published by the Human Rights Advocacy Center (HRAC) [1], a "not-for-profit, independent, non-partisan research and advocacy organization set up to advance and protect human rights in Ghana" (HRAC n.d.), "[d]omestic violence is a serious and pervasive issue in Ghana" (ibid. Nov. 2012, 4). A 2011 report on the Ghana Police Service's Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU), published by Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO) [2], an "international development organization that uses volunteers to fight poverty and reduce inequality" (VSO n.d.), indicates that "[s]tudies in Ghana estimate that three out of five women suffer some form of domestic violence and one in three women have experienced some form of assault during their life" (VSO Nov. 2011, iii).

An article by the Ghana News Agency (GNA) cites a DOVVSU report as revealing "an increasing trend in cases of domestic violence" due to increasing awareness regarding the issue (8 Dec. 2014).

The following table, taken from the civil society coalition's NGO Shadow Report, provides data on reported cases of domestic violence received by DOVVSU (Civil Society Coalition Oct. 2014, 20-21).

2011 2012 2013

Rape 370 290 312

Threats 1,474 120 1,097

Assault 5,382 746 2,795

Compulsion of marriage 16 11 21

Other sources report contrasting figures for the number of domestic violence cases reported to DOVVSU: Ghana's Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, which is responsible for "ensur[ing] gender equality, promot[ing] the welfare and protection of children and empower[ing] the vulnerable through social protection interventions" (Ghana Mar. 2013), states in its Fourth Progress Report on the Implementation of the African and Beijing Platform of Action that DOVVSU received 9,974 domestic violence cases in 2013, 2,470 in 2012, and 17,965 in 2011 (ibid. June 2014, 19). According to AI, 16,275 cases were reported to the DOVVSU in 2013 (AI 25 Feb. 2015, 163). A public relations officer for DOVVSU is cited in an article published by Ghana Nation, a Ghanaian news website, as stating that DOVSSU received 15,495 reported cases of domestic violence against women in 2011, in comparison to 2,474 reported cases of domestic violence against men (Ghana Nation 14 Mar. 2012).

According to HRAC, an average of two spousal murders took place every month in Ghana between January 2010 and July 2012 (HRAC Nov. 2012, 3). The same source reports that during the same time period, there were 53 cases of spousal murder, 42 of which were "wife-killings" (ibid.). An "alternative report" on violence against women and children in Ghana, published by the Network for Women's Rights in Ghana (NETRIGHT), a network of civil society organisations who "advocate for policy change to strengthen women's human rights" (NETRIGHT n.d.), in collaboration with the Association of African Women in Research and Development (AAWORD) [3] and the UN Women Ghana Country Program Office, reports that in 2012, 13 cases of wife murders were reported (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 12). According to the same source, of the 13 wife murders, two perpetrators were arrested and one of them committed suicide (ibid.). Womankind Worldwide, an "international woman's rights charity" (Womankind Worldwide n.d.b), reports that in 2012, 10 spousal murders were recorded, "the majority being husbands killing wives" (ibid. n.d.a).

Sources report that domestic violence is viewed as a private family matter in Ghana and as a result, it is difficult for victims to report abuse and seek help (Graduate student 17 Aug. 2015; Adu-Gyamfi 2014, 84-85; Professor Tenkorang 21 Aug. 2015). In a telephone interview with the Research Directorate, Professor Eric Y. Tenkorang from the Department of Sociology at Memorial University in Newfoundland, who focuses on social demography in Ghana and sub-Saharan Africa, indicated that in Ghana marriage is considered to be a union of families and not only individuals, therefore when a conflict occurs it is expected that the family will "'arbitrate'" the conflict and that it will not "go outside of the family" (ibid.).

According to a 2014 journal article by Ernest Adu-Gyamfi in the Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization, respondents who participated in a study conducted by the author on domestic violence indicated that "[c]hurch, opinion and traditional leaders do not encourage married victims to report abuse to police … [a]s a result of such attitudes, it has traditionally been very difficult for victims to report such abuses to the state authorities" (Adu-Gyamfi 2014, 88). HRAC notes that there is a "stigma and shame" associated with domestic violence in Ghana (HRAC Nov. 2012, 12). Similarly, sources report that women's access to justice is impeded by gender norms, societal beliefs, and physical and cultural barriers, which stigmatize women and prevent them from reporting incidences of domestic violence (Ghana 14 June 2012, 40; Professor Tenkorang 21 Aug. 2015). According to Professor Tenkorang, "[s]ome women believe that domestic violence (beating) is a demonstration of love and some believe that the abuse is a form of necessary 'corrective beatings' for bad behaviour" (ibid.).

According to the Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey for 2011, "60 percent of women in Ghana feel that their husband/partner has a right to hit or beat them" (Ghana Dec. 2012, 230). Participatory Development Associates (PDA) Ghana, an organization promoting development and community empowerment in Ghana (PDA n.d.b), indicates that the "attitudes, beliefs and cultural practices which place men high above women," hinder the "eradicati[on] [of] violence against women in Ghana" (PDA n.d.a).

2. Legislation

Article 1 of Ghana's Domestic Violence Act, 2007 states the following:

Domestic Violence means engaging in the following within the context of a previous or existing domestic relationship:

an act under the Criminal Code 1960 (Act 29) which constitutes a threat to a person under that Act;

specific acts, threats to commit, or acts likely to result in

physical abuse, namely physical assault or use of physical force against another person including the forcible confinement or detention of another person and the deprivation of another person of access to adequate food, water, clothing, shelter, rest, or subjecting another person to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. (Ghana 2007, Art. 1)

Article 3 of the law states the following regarding the prohibition and punishment of domestic violence:

3.

A person in a domestic relationship shall not engage in domestic violence.

A person in a domestic relationship who engages in domestic violence commits an offence and is liable on summary conviction to a fine of not more than five hundred penalty units or to a term of imprisonment of not more than two years or to both.

The Court may in addition to imposing a fine or a prison term, order the offender in a case of domestic violence to pay compensation to the victim as the Court may determine.

When a cause for complaint has arisen between persons in a domestic relationship and the persons do not cohabit, none of those persons shall enter into the residence of the other person without that other person's permission. (Ghana 2007, Art. 3)

The US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2014 indicates that "the law criminalizes rape but not spousal rape" (US 25 June 2015, 14). The penalty for rape as described in Chapter 6, Section 97 of Ghana's Criminal Code states that: "Whoever commits rape shall be guilty of first degree felony and shall be liable on conviction to imprisonment for a term of not less than five years and not more than twenty five years" (Ghana 1961, Sec. 97). GNA cites a Member of Parliament as stating that the Domestic Violence Act has remained "insignificant" due to the fact that there is no legislative instrument to support it (25 Nov. 2014). Sources similarly report that the Act's accompanying legislative instrument has yet to be passed (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 13; Civil Society Coalition Oct. 2014, 15; Graduate student 17 Aug. 2015).

3. State Protection

Ghana's Multiple Cluster Indicator Survey indicates that although the Domestic Violence Act provides victims of domestic violence with protection, temporary custody of children, and shelter, "tradition tends to make Ghanaian women and children accept the obvious disparity between their situation and that of their male counterparts, and yield to violence (Ghana Dec. 2012, 230). Professor Tenkorang similarly indicated that despite the fact that state protection is "available to women," it is "underutilized by women facing intimate partner violence," due to societal and cultural beliefs as well as gender norms (ibid.).

3.1 Protection Orders

Articles 11 to 16 of the Domestic Violence Act provide information on the procedures to apply for protection orders and interim protection orders from the courts (Ghana 2007, Art. 11-16). The full text of the Domestic Violence Act is attached to this Response.

Sources indicate that victims of domestic violence are not aware of their right to a protection order (VSO Nov. 2011, 23; Professor Tenkorang 21 Aug. 2015). Professor Tenkorang stated that women do not seek protection orders since domestic violence is viewed as a private family matter (ibid.). Further information on the issuance of protection orders in practice and statistics on protection orders could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

3.2 Government Efforts

The Ministry of Gender, Children, and Social Protection reported in June 2014 that the government established a Domestic Violence Board and Secretariat and that a legislative instrument was being finalized for the Domestic Violence Act (Ghana June 2014, 21). The same source reported that a domestic violence fund had also been established to assist domestic violence victims with skills training and medical bills (ibid.). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a graduate student with the Department of Gender Studies at Memorial University of Newfoundland who conducted field research on domestic violence in Ghana in 2014 [4], indicated that during her time in Ghana conducting field research, the fund had only been used once "due to the lack of the legislative instrument" (17 Aug. 2015). The Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection states that the judiciary and DOVVSU "have made gains in their investigative operations" regarding domestic violence through "child-sensitive judicial procedures," and that DOVVSU has prosecuted and sentenced "a number of perpetrators of domestic violence" (Ghana June 2014, 21). According to the same source, two gender courts have been created by the judiciary in order to accelerate the process for determining cases of violence and abuse (ibid.).

In a statement given at the 57th Session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women, the Minister for Gender, Children and Social Protection indicated that the government has implemented DOVVSU offices in 97 locations nationwide, created gender-based violence courts in Accra and Kumasi, established domestic violence shelters, and provided training for police, healthcare providers and social welfare officers (Ghana Mar. 2013).

3.3 Police

According to VSO, DOVVSU's mandate is to "protect the rights and promote the welfare of children and women by preventing and prosecuting crimes committed against them in both the domestic and community setting" (VSO Nov. 2011, 4). According to the US Department of State's Ghana 2015 Crime and Safety Report, the unit can also provide victims with a referral for medical care and counselling as well as community support services (US 5 June 2015). Sources note that DOVVSU has offices in all 10 regions of the country (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 15-16; Ghana 14 June 2012, 39) and in 87 of the 138 districts (ibid.). Police personnel are posted at each office in order to receive domestic violence complaints (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 15-16). Sources report that DOVVSU, in co-operation with the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), has been training their officers in order to improve their knowledge and ability to address victims of domestic violence (Civil Society Coalition Oct. 2014, 21; Ghana 31 Mar. 2015). Professor Tenkorang noted that police officers working with DOVVSU are "well trained" on how to manage and counsel victims of domestic violence (21 Aug. 2015). Similarly, one of the key findings of the VSO report was that "service users are believed, feel well listened to and perceive they are treated well by [DOVVSU] officers" (VSO Nov. 2011, v).

Sources report that making a formal complaint with DOVSSU is a significant step for a domestic violence victim to obtain legal recourse (VSO Nov. 2011, 30; Graduate Student 17 Aug. 2015). The graduate student stated that upon receipt of a domestic violence complaint, an investigator will review the complaint and provide the complainant with a medical examination. (ibid.). Once the medical examination is complete, the "perpetrator" is brought to the police station for questioning. (ibid.). If it is concluded that a crime was committed, the case is submitted to the courts (ibid.). According to the graduate student, apart from being time consuming, this process is costly and "can deter the survivor from proceeding with the case" (17 Aug. 2015).

AI reports that "[a]lthough the law prohibits domestic violence, victims were not provided with adequate protection and legal assistance to lodge complaints with [the DOVVSU] unit" in 2013 (25 Feb. 2015, 163). Country Reports 2014 indicates that "[u]nless specifically called upon by DOVVSU, police seldom intervened in cases of domestic violence, in part due to a lack of counselling skills, shelter facilities, and other resources to assist victims" (US 25 June 2015, 15). In an interview with The Guardian, a member of COMBAT, a community-based anti-violence team known as "'women protectors or women police,'" trained by DOVVSU and Action Aid Ghana (ActionAid n.d.a), states that "[p]olice are sometimes reluctant to pursue an arrest unless they are paid by the victim or the family" (The Guardian 23 June 2015).

The Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection reports that "[i]nadequate capacity and awareness of law enforcement institutions to enforce laws and put into practice policies concerning violence against women" remains an obstacle to addressing violence against women (Ghana June 2014, 23). The GNA reports that according to DOVSSU's administrator, the unit was faced with "delays in reporting cases, difficulty in getting evidence, difficulty in getting funds for medical treatment," and "limitation of health care" (GNA 5 Dec. 2014). Similarly, sources report that DOVVSU units have been "weakened" (Civil Society Coalition Oct. 2014, 21) or "hindered" (VSO Nov. 2011, 34) by the lack of resources and logistical support (ibid.; Civil Society Coalition Oct. 2014, 21). Sources note that police lack adequate facilities to protect women and that DOVVSU lacks sufficient resources to effectively investigate crimes (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 6; VSO Nov. 2011, 24, 31).

3.4 Judiciary

The graduate student indicated that the government established three "specialized domestic courts" in order to expedite the adjudication of domestic violence cases (Graduate student 17 Aug. 2015). Sources indicate that these courts are located in Accra, Kumasi (Freedom House 2015; Graduate student 17 Aug. 2015) and Tema (ibid.).

Sources indicate that although reporting of domestic violence cases has increased (Womankind.org n.d.a; GNA 5 Dec. 2014; Adu-Gyamfi 2014, 84), it has not correlated with an increase in prosecutions and convictions (ibid.; Womankind.org n.d.a). Professor Tenkorang noted that the legal system is "very slow" and that judicial delays and costs associated with pursuing domestic violence cases, such as legal and medical fees, prevent victims from reporting domestic violence (21 Aug. 2015). Similarly, sources report that access to justice is impeded due to long delays (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 6; US 25 June 2015, 15; Ghana 14 June 2014, 40) and a lack of knowledge regarding court systems (ibid.). According to the VSO report, "[t]here are generally high levels of drop out or case attrition" (Nov. 2011, v).

The October 2014 NGO shadow report notes that prosecutors have "inadequate" skills to properly convict perpetrators of domestic violence (Civil Society Coalition Oct. 2014, 21). The VSO report notes that the "state's provision for access to justice is insufficient and ineffective in the key areas of prosecution, punishment and attrition" (Nov. 2011, 30). Sources indicate that an inadequately resourced formal justice system and lack of logistical capacity undermine domestic violence victims' access to justice (Adu-Gyamfi 2014, 84; Womankind.org n.d.a; US 25 June 2015, 15) and "hindered" the application of the law (ibid.).

GNA reports that in 2014 DOVVSU's Northern Regional Branch received 667 cases of sexual and gender-based violence (GNA 17 Mar. 2015). According to the same source, victims consisted of 544 females and 132 males and 56 cases were investigated and prosecuted resulting in 14 convictions, including two assault cases (ibid.). Country Reports 2014 indicates that "[a]ccording to the DOVVSU, of the 255 rape and domestic assault cases sent to court in 2013, only 16 resulted in convictions" (US 25 June 2015, 15).

4. Support Services

The VSO report states that DOVSSU "service users" typically have "no access to any specialized services" (VSO Nov. 2011, 34). Sources report that budgetary constraints impede the delivery of adequate domestic violence support services (ibid.; Civil Society Coalition Oct. 2014, 15).

Professor Tenkorang indicated that research on support services available to victims of domestic violence is "very limited" (Professor Tenkorang 21 Aug. 2015).

4.1 Department of Social Welfare

The graduate student indicated that the Department of Social Welfare works with both "public and private agencies" to provide services to victims of domestic violence (17 Aug. 2015). According to NETRIGHT's report, the Department of Social Welfare has trained social workers who conduct investigations and counsel victims of domestic violence (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 16). The same source notes that these social workers, who have a "very wide mandate" and are stationed in districts rather than in communities, are not easily accessible to victims of domestic violence (ibid.). In addition, NETRIGHT indicates that the department is "poorly resourced" and in 2012 it received less than one percent of the annual budget (ibid.).

4.2 Civil Society Organizations (CSO)

The Minister for Gender, Children and Social Protection stated that NGOs conduct advocacy, create awareness, provide free legal services, support, and rehabilitate victims of domestic violence and conduct court monitoring (Ghana Mar. 2013). Sources report that CSOs assist with shelters, counselling and rehabilitation, but lack both funding and resources (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 15; VSO Nov. 2011, 35; Graduate student 17 Aug. 2015).

According to the website of FIDA-Ghana, the NGO provides free Legal Aid Services by assisting those who cannot afford legal aid, especially women and children (FIDA-Ghana n.d.a). Services provided by volunteer lawyers include "counselling, settlement, mediation and court representation" (ibid.). FIDA-Ghana's legal aid services also provide educational programs for the public (FIDA-Ghana n.d.b). In support of FIDA-Ghana's legal aid program, the NGO also pursues legal literacy programs, "[a]dvocates and lobbies for the amendment and passage of gender sensitive legislation," conducts research on "socio-legal" matters affecting women and children, sensitizes the Ghanaian community in regards to gender-related issues, and establishes links with other development groups "for the advancement of women" (ibid.). Information on whether or not the NGO is still operational could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The Ark Foundation, an NGO located in Accra that aims to protect and promote the rights of women and children (The Ark Foundation n.d.a), provides "counselling, a 24-hour abuse hotline service, legal aid, temporary shelter, medical and other referrals and rehabilitation" (ibid. n.d.b). The graduate student noted that due to financial constraints, the Ark Foundation "has had to cut back on their operations by discontinuing their free legal services and the provision of financial support to survivors" (17 Aug. 2015). According to the website of the Women's Initiative for Self-Empowerment (WISE), an NGO founded in Accra in 1999 that "respond[s] to the increase in reports of violence against women and children" (WISE n.d.b), provides services including "counselling, training and development, [and] advocacy and support to meet the needs of victims and their families" (WISE n.d.a). However, both Professor Tenkorang and the graduate student noted that WISE has closed its offices (Professor Tenkorang 1 Sept. 2015; Graduate student 17 Aug. 2015) due to "financial challenges" (ibid.). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

In 2009, ActionAid, an "international organization working with over 15 million people in 45 countries for a world free from poverty and injustice" (ActionAid n.d.b), in collaboration with DOVVSU, informed 20 communities in Ghana about the concept of Community-Based Anti-Violence Teams (COMBAT), who monitor and respond to reports of violence by educating their communities about state laws like the Domestic Violence Act (ibid. n.d.a). COMBAT teams were trained by officials from ActionAid Ghana, DOVVSU, the Commission for Human Rights and Administrative Justice, and the Department of Social Welfare (ibid.). According to a 2 September 2015 blog post on the Action Aid website, a member of one of the COMBAT teams in Ghana stated that "there used to be a lot of violence against women and children in her community, but after six years of her team's work this has reduced considerably" (ibid. 2 Sept. 2015). The same source reports that the teams are made up of volunteers who are suggested by the village chief, and who deliver presentations at local churches and mosques on domestic violence and provide counselling to victims and help them file complaints with DOVVSU (ActionAid 2 Sept. 2015). Action Aid continues to train COMBAT teams (ibid.). According to the NETRIGHT report, several cases of non-fatal domestic violence were resolved by the COMBAT teams, with "perpetrators being fined or publicly disgraced as punishment" (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 12). NETRIGHT reports that the creation of COMBAT teams "has given a good opportunity for cases of VAWC [violence against women and children] to be resolved within the community if it is non-fatal, and for reporting to the police for persecution in fatal cases" (ibid., 23).

4.3 Shelters

Sources indicate that there are three shelters for victims of domestic violence in Ghana (Civil Society Coalition Oct. 2014, 21; Graduate student 17 Aug. 2015; Ghana June 2014, 21). According to the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, the shelters are located in Accra, Wa and Ho (ibid.). However, the graduate student indicated that in a 2014 interview with the Domestic Violence Secretariat for the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, the Secretariat indicated that the government shelters in Wa and Ho were not operational due to a lack of funding (17 Aug. 2015). According to Professor Tenkorang, the shelters in Wa and Ho are "orphanages and not [for] domestic violence victims" and that they are often "confused for domestic violence shelters" (Professor Tenkorang 1 Sept. 2015). Sources noted that the Ark Foundation maintains a women's shelter in the Eastern Region of Ghana (ibid.; Graduate student 17 Aug. 2015). The graduate student stated that during an interview that she conducted with a source from DOVVSU, they indicated that they were unaware of any functioning governmental women's shelters, and that the shelter run by the Ark Foundation was "inadequate to meet the high demand" (ibid.). Professor Tenkorang noted that the shelters rely heavily on donations and funding (21 Aug. 2015). According to NETRIGHT,shelters "are not sufficient or available in all parts of the country" (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 18). Professor Tenkorang indicated that since the shelters are located in district capitals, they are not accessible to poor rural women who comprise a "large number of domestic violence victims" (21 Aug. 2015). Information on the capacity of the shelters could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4.4 Hotline

Sources report that in September 2012, the Ark Foundation launched a 24-hour hotline for victims of domestic violence (Balancing Act 14 Sept. 2012; GNA 6 Sept. 2012). Sources indicate that the hotline provides victims with access to trained professionals who provide expert advice, counselling, police assistance, legal advice as well as interventions (ibid.; Balancing Act 14 Sept. 2012). The graduate student indicated that the police have emergency hotlines, but they are not "dedicated solely to domestic violence cases" (17 Aug. 2015). Professor Tenkorang indicated that only women who can afford a cell phone or a landline can access the hotline and the limited availability of electricity can further limit their access to the hotline (ibid.).

4.5 Medical Services

According to the NETRIGHT report, in many hospitals, if victims of physical violence require emergency medical treatment, they "are required to make a payment before receiving medical attention" (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 16). Country Reports 2014 indicates that victims frequently did not complete their formal complaints because they could not afford doctor's fees to document the abuse on police medical forms (25 June 2015, 15). The VSO report similarly states that "[f]or all cases that needed a medical report there was a 70 [percent] drop out. Of these service users it was found that drop out can be attributed to the cost of medical report in 50 [percent] of cases" (Nov. 2011, v). NETRIGHT notes that some victims "often" run out of money before their cases are finalized (NETRIGHT et al. Dec. 2012, 6-7).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Notes:

[1] The HRAC report on spousal murders and rival killings in Ghana is based on the analysis of media reports from three online sources, two newspapers and two online research databases published from January 2010 until July 2012 (HRAC Nov. 2012, 15).

[2] The VSO report on the services provided by DOVVSU is based on a study conducted in Ghana from May to November 2011 where 99 women and men from the Kaneshie district of Accra were interviewed (VSO Nov. 2011, viii, 1).

[3] AAWORD is an independent organization with the objective of "building a democratic, fair and egalitarian African society" through research and building a "strong African women's movement" (AAWORD n.d.).

[4] The graduate student's research is focused on Ghanaian women's knowledge and the perceptions of domestic violence services in Ghana (Graduate student 17 Aug. 2015). From September to December 2014, she conducted interviews with 10 women from Sowutuom, a community in the Greater Accra region, and employees of 3 agencies involved in domestic violence work in Ghana (the Ark Foundation, the Domestic Violence Secretariat of the Ministry of Gender and Social Protection, and DOVVSU) (ibid.).

References

ActionAid. 2 September 2015. Alice Jennings. "How One Woman Is Bringing Down Violence in Ghana." [Accessed 8 Sept. 2015]

_____. N.d.a. "COMBAT Helps Girls Back to School, and Wages War on Their Abductors." [Accessed 3 Sept. 2015]

_____. N.d.b. "Who We Are." [Accessed 8 Sept. 2015]

Adu-Gyamfi, Ernest. 2014. "Challenges Undermining Domestic Violence Victims' Access to Justice in Mampong Municipality of Ghana." Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization. Vol. 27. [Accessed 6 Aug. 2015]

Amnesty International (AI). 25 February 2015. "Ghana." Amnesty International Report 2014/15: The State of the World's Human Rights. [Accessed 5 Aug. 2015]

The Ark Foundation. N.d. "About Us." [Accessed 13 Aug. 2015]

Association of African Women for Research and Development (AAWORD). N.d. "Vision and Mission." [Accessed 27 Aug. 2015]

Balancing Act. 14 September 2012. "Ghana: VGF Launches Hotline for Domestic Abuse Reporting." Issue 622. [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]

Civil Society Coalition. October 2014. NGO Shadow Report to 6th & 7th Periodic Report of Ghana on Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): Submitted to UN CEDAW Committee, Geneva, Switzerland. [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]

FIDA-Ghana. N.d.a. "The FIDA-Ghana Legal Aid Programme." [Accessed 8 Sept. 2015]

_____. N.d.b. "Services." [Accessed 8 Sept. 2015]

Freedom House. 2015. "Ghana." Freedom in the World 2015. [Accessed 5 Aug. 2015]

Ghana. 31 March 2015. Ghana Police Service. "DOVVSU Station Officers Schooled." [Accessed 13 Aug. 2015]

_____. June 2014. Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection. Ghana's Fourth Progress Report on the Implementation of the African and Beijing Platform of Action and Review Report for Beijing+20. [Accessed 6 Aug. 2015]

_____. March 2013. Permanent Mission of Ghana to the United Nations. "Statement by Hon. Nana Oye Lithur, Minister for Gender, Children and Social Protection at the 57th Session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women." [Accessed 6 Aug. 2015]

_____. December 2012. Ghana Statistical Service. Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey With an Enhanced Malaria Module and Biomarker. [Accessed 8 Aug. 2015]

_____. 14 June 2012. Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties Under Article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Combined Sixth and Seventh Periodic Reports of States Parties: Ghana. CEDAW/C/GHA/6-7 [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]

_____. 2007. Domestic Violence Act, 2007. [Accessed 7 Aug. 2015]

_____. 1961. Criminal Code, 1960. [Accessed 7 Aug. 2015]

Ghana Nation. 14 March 2012. "Domestic Violence 2474 Men Beaten Up by Their Wives in Ghana Last Year." [Accessed 27 Aug. 2015]

Ghana News Agency (GNA). 17 March 2015. "DOVVSU Records 667 Cases of Sexual, Gender Violence." [Accessed 6 Aug. 2015]

_____. 5 December 2014. "Domestic Violence on the Increase -DOVVSU Report." [Accessed 6 Aug. 2015]

_____. 25 November 2014. "MP Worried About Lack of L.I. to Support Domestic Violence Act." [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]

_____. 6 September 2012. "Vodafone Ghana Foundation Launches Hotline for Domestic Abuse." [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]

Graduate student, Department of Gender Studies, Memorial University of Newfoundland. 17 August 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

The Guardian. 23 June 2015. Liz Ford. "Governments Accused of 'Perpetrating Violence Against Women.'" (Factiva)

Human Rights Advocacy Centre (HRAC). November 2012. Deadly Relationships & Toxic Bonds: Spousal Murders and Rival Killings in Ghana. [Accessed 19 Aug. 2015]

_____. N.d. "Who We Are." [Accessed 12 Aug. 2015]

Network for Women's Rights in Ghana (NETRIGHT), Association of African Women in Research and Development (AAWORD), and UN Women Ghana Country Program Office. December 2012. Ghana NGOs Alternative Report for CSW 57. Theme: Violence Against Women and Children. [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]

_____. N.d. "About NETRIGHT." [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]

Participatory Development Associates (PDA) Ltd. N.d.a. "Violence Against Women in Ghana." [Accessed 12 Aug. 2015]

_____. N.d.b. "What We Stand for." [Accessed 20 Aug. 2015]

Professor Eric Y. Tenkorang, Department of Sociology, Memorial University of Newfoundland. 1 September 2015. Telephone Interview with the Research Directorate.

_____. 21 August 2015. Telephone Interview with the Research Directorate.

United States (US). 25 June 2015. Department of State. "Ghana." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2014. [Accessed 5 Sept. 2015]

_____. 5 June 2015. Department of State. Ghana 2015 Crime and Safety Report. [Accessed 6 Aug. 2015]

Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO). November 2011. Laura Mitchell. Service Users' Perceptions of the Domestic Violence and Victims' Support Unit, Ghana Police Service. [Accessed 20 Aug. 2015]

_____. N.d. "About VSO." [Accessed 26 Aug. 2015]

Womankind Worldwide. N.d.a. Patricia Isabella Essel. "Effects of Violence Against Women in Ghana." [Accessed 6 Aug. 2015]

_____. N.d.b. "About Us." [Accessed 12 Aug. 2015]

Women's Inititative for Self-Empowerment (WISE). N.d.a. "WISE-UP." [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]

_____. N.d.b. "History of WISE." [Accessed 10 Aug. 2015]

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: African Network of Women Shelters; The Ark Foundation; Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice; Department Head, Department of Gender Studies, Memorial University of Newfoundland; Director, Africa Regional Office, International Center for Research on Women; Gender Studies and Human Rights Documentation Centre; Ghana Police Service; Network for Women's Rights in Ghana; WomanKind Worldwide; Women's Initiative for Self-Empowerment; YWCA Ghana.

Internet sites, including: The Africa Report; African Network of Women Shelters; African Women's Development Fund; Economic Commission for Africa; Gender Studies and Human Rights Documentation Centre; Gender Violence Survivors Support Network; Ghana - Department of Social Welfare, Ghana Statistical Service; Global Action for Women Empowerment; Global Network on Women's Shelters; Human Rights Watch; IRIN; United Nations - UNHCR; Vibe Ghana; Women's Initiative for Self-Empowerment; World Humanitarian Summit; YWCA Ghana.

Attachment

Ghana. 2007. Domestic Violence Act, 2007. [Accessed 7 Aug. 2015]