Freedom in the World 1998 - Lebanon

1998 Scores

Status: Not Free
Freedom Rating: 5.5
Civil Liberties: 5
Political Rights: 6

Overview

Lebanon saw significant changes in government in 1998. At the local level, Lebanese voted in their first municipal elections in 35 years. At the national level, parliament voted unanimously to install General Emile Lahoud, the widely popular former Army chief, in the position of president. Refusing to serve under Lahoud, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri stepped down in December, making way for Salim al-Hoss. It is yet unclear whether Lebanon's new leaders will undertake the badly needed economic reform and rural development advocated by opposition activists.

Lebanon gained full sovereignty from France in 1946. An unwritten National Pact in 1943 gave Christians political dominance over the Muslim population through a mandatory six to five ratio of parliamentary seats. After three decades during which non-Christians tried to end this system, a civil war erupted between Muslim, Christian, and Druze militias in 1975, claiming over 150,000 lives before it ended in 1990. Complicating the situation was the presence of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which, after having been expelled from Jordan in 1971, used Lebanon as a base for attacks against Israel and constituted an occupying force. Syria sent troops into Lebanon to support the government in 1976. Syrians, who consider Lebanon part of Greater Syria, continue to occupy the country today.

A peace plan put forward by the Arab League was ratified by the Lebanese assembly on November 5, 1989 in Taif, Saudi Arabia. The Taif Accord maintained the tradition of a Maronite Christian president indirectly elected to a six-year term, but it transferred most executive power to the prime minister, a Sunni Muslim by agreement. A Shi'ite Muslim serves as speaker of parliament, which is now evenly split between Muslims and Christians.

The Lebanese government is not sovereign in its own country. With some 35,000-40,000 troops in Lebanon, Syria dominates the country politically and militarily. The 128-member parliament, elected in September 1996, follows the Syrian line on internal and regional affairs. Israel's South Lebanon Army (SLA) controls a 440 square mile security zone in the south; the Shi'ite, pro-Iranian Hezbollah militia is still active in many southern towns; and Palestinian groups operate autonomously in refugee camps throughout the country.

Municipal elections held in May and June 1998 were not subject to sectarian quotas, as are legislative elections. After boycotting two legislative elections since 1991 to protest Syrian occupation, Maronite Christians took part in the polls to contest 646 municipal councils and 2,000 mayoral seats. A "Beirut Accord List" representing Hezbollah, Maronites, and others won 23 of 24 seats in Beirut, bringing a balance of Christians and Muslims to the capital's municipal council. The government and the Muslim, pro-Syria Amal movement fared poorly in Mount Lebanon, while Hezbollah and Christians made notable gains. Voter turnout ranged from 32 to 80 percent.

The balance of power enshrined in the Taif accord resulted in overlapping authority among the speaker, prime minister, and president. Sectarian tensions and conflicting priorities among the three have often led to political infighting and stalled political and economic progress. Syria, meanwhile, has worked to manipulate these tensions in order to keep its position as mediator. But by choosing Emile Lahoud as Lebanon's president, Syria brought in a popular politician who is respected across sectarian lines. As head of the armed forces, he turned fragmented civil war militias into a unified army and gained wide public support in the process. It is thought that Syria, recognizing that political stability is vital to its economic interest, has decided to try to foster internal cooperation rather than incite hostilities.

In late November, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri sparked a crisis by turning down Lahoud's invitation to form a new government. Though Hariri claimed that Lahoud had conducted unconstitutional dealings with parliament, analysts believe that Hariri was angry over Lahoud's attempts to influence his choice of ministers. In December, Lahoud appointed Salim al-Hoss, a former prime minister and widely respected economist. Al-Hoss scrapped Hariri's agenda of restoring Lebanon to its pre-war glory as a regional trade and financial center, citing the need to be "realistic." Instead, he stressed administrative reform and increased transparency in public departments as priorities. As a first move, the new prime minister cut the number of cabinet ministers from 30 to 16, largely ignoring religious quotas and including 11 first-time members.

Political Rights and Civil Liberties

Shortcomings in the electoral system limit the right of Lebanese citizens to change their government. Parliamentary elections held in 1996 were neither prepared nor carried out impartially. According to the constitution, a president is to be elected by parliament every six years. In truth, Syria's choice of president is simply ratified by parliament. At the last election in 1995, the Syrian government extended incumbent Elias Hrawi's term for an extra three years. Just prior to the election of Lahoud in October, parliament amended a constitutional requirement that senior government officials resign their posts at least two years before running for office.

Municipal elections held in May and June were considered reasonably free and fair by the U.S. State Department. Opposition activists routinely complain that villages and towns in more remote areas have gone neglected while postwar reconstruction efforts have focused on Beirut. It is hoped that the new municipal councils will address this issue, though their powers are severely limited.

The judiciary is influenced by Syrian political pressure, which affects the appointments of key prosecutors and investigating magistrates. The judicial system comprises civilian courts, a military court, and a judicial council. International standards of criminal procedure are not observed in the military court, which consists largely of military officers with no legal training. The average case is tried in minutes. Extra-governmental groups, like the Israeli South Lebanese Army (SLA), Palestinian factions, and Hezbollah, detain suspects and administer justice in areas under their control, generally without due process safeguards.

Arbitrary arrest and detention are commonplace. Security forces detained dozens and searched homes without warrants after a car bombing in Dora in mid-June. Security forces use torture to extract confessions. Prison conditions do not meet international standards. Inmates of the Roumieh prison, Lebanon's largest, rioted in April to protest alleged mistreatment and to demand better conditions.

The government continues its crackdown on independent broadcasting, which flourished during the civil war. In January, a government decree banned two of the country's four satellite television stations from broadcasting news or political programming. Since the crackdown began in 1996, the government has licensed only five television stations, three of which are owned by government figures; it has also licensed six radio stations that may carry news and 20 stations that may carry only entertainment. Fifty-two television stations and 124 radio stations have been closed. The appropriation of frequencies is a slow and highly politicized process.

Print media are independent of government, though their content often reflects the opinions of the various local and foreign groups that finance them. Insulting the dignity of the head of state or foreign leaders is prohibited. All foreign print media are subject to government approval. In 1998, three journalists were charged with defamation for criticizing the judiciary, and one was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and fined for contempt of authority.

In December 1998, the new government lifted a five year-old ban on public demonstrations. Protests were banned in 1993 after a demonstration against the Oslo Middle East peace accords turned violent. Public assemblies require government approval, which is frequently denied to Christian groups.

Freedom of religion is generally respected. Citizens may travel abroad freely, though internal travel is restricted in certain areas under Israeli or Hezbollah control. Syrian troops maintain checkpoints in areas under their control. The government does not extend legal rights to some 180,000 stateless persons who live mainly in disputed border areas. Some 350,000-500,000 Palestinian refugees live without adequate electricity and water, and face restrictions on travel, work, building, and purchasing property.

In March 1998, President Elias Hrawi introduced a bill to permit marriages regulated by civil rather than religious authorities, making it easier for interfaith couples to marry. Seen as the first step in abolishing Lebanon's confessional political system, the bill did not make it past the cabinet.

Women suffer legal and social discrimination. Although women commonly work in fields like medicine, law, journalism, and banking, they are severely underrepresented in politics. Women council members constituted only one percent of the newly elected municipal councils.

All workers except those in government may establish unions, strike, and bargain collectively. Foreign domestic workers are routinely abused by employers who treat them like slaves, pay them little or nothing, and confiscate their passports to prevent them from leaving. Women are most vulnerable to brutality or sexual abuse. Lebanon has no written code to arbitrate domestic worker disputes.