India: Whether single women and women who head their own households without male support can obtain housing and employment, including in Delhi, Mumbai and Chandigarh; women's housing, land, property and inheritance rights; government support services available to single women and female-headed households, including working women hostels in Delhi, Mumbai and Chandigarh, and shelters and support programs in the country (2014-March 2015)

1. Overview

According to a 7 March 2014 article by BBC, India's 2001 census reported that there were approximately 40 million women "who are single and over the age of 30 - divorced, separated or unmarried" (BBC 7 Mar. 2014). A 8 March 2013 article by the Independent, a UK daily newspaper, reports that there are over "43 million widows over 18; over 22 million women over 18 who were divorced or separated; and more than 33 million women unmarried or never married."

According to DNA (Daily News and Analysis) India, a Mumbai English-language daily newspaper (DNA India n.d.), India's 2011 national census indicated that 10.9 percent of India's households were headed by women (DNA India 27 Sept. 2013). According to Dr. Sukant Chaudhury, a faculty member in the Department of Sociology at the University of Lucknow, India, who is cited in the article, "'women can never be accepted as the household head, unless they are widows or deserted by their husbands'" (ibid.). A 2014 article by Press Trust of India (PTI), an Indian news agency, quotes a member of the National Forum for Single Women's Rights [1] as stating that "'[f]or the government, only widowed women qualify as single women[,] leaving out the vast number of separated, abandoned, single mothers or older women who never married [from access to government programs]'" (11 Nov. 2014). Similarly, in a 2012 article by the Hindu, an Indian English-language daily newspaper, a member of India's Planning Commission is quoted as stating that "'[s]o far the recognised categories [for government programs] of single women are widows and divorcees'" (7 Sept. 2012).

In a 2012 paper on female-headed households in India, presented at the Population Association of America's 2013 Annual Meeting Program, Achala Gupta of the University of Cambridge and Nandan Kumar of the International Institute for Population Studies indicate that female-headed households are most often the result of the absence of a male breadwinner (Gupta and Kumar Sept. 2012, 1). Cited in the 2013 DNA India article, Dr. Sukant Chaudhury states that "poor economic condition and migration has contributed to the growth of single women headed households" (27 Sept. 2013). Sources similarly state that rural female-headed households are often a result of male migration (Associate Professor 10 Apr. 2015; India 18 July 2013, 17), widowhood or desertion (ibid.).

Gupta and Kumar indicate that approximately 59 percent of female-headed households are headed by widows, 35 percent by married women, less than 1 percent by divorced women, 4 percent by separated women and less than 2 percent by women who have never married (Gupta and Kumar Sept. 2012, 3). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

A women's rights activist quoted in a February 2015 article by Orissa Diary, a website about Odisha state, reports that single women are marginalized in Indian society and that there are existing social stratifications designed to "take away single women from the mainstream" (Orissa Diary 20 Feb. 2015). The 7 March 2014 article by BBC states that social stigma around divorce "still hangs heavy over women, usually housewives, who are dependent on their husbands" and that "[s]ingledom can be cruel and oppressive for women as they are considered complete only when they marry." The same source notes that single women in India face violence and other hazards and are "often unable to live a normal life" (BBC 7 Mar. 2014). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

In correspondence with the Research Directorate, an associate professor from Carleton University, whose research focuses on political science, legal anthropology, women studies and law, noted that "there is a stigma regarding single women" and that the media has reported on this in major cities including Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai and Kolkata (Associate Professor 10 Apr. 2015). Media sources similarly report that stigma towards single women still exists (The Independent 8 Mar. 2013; BBC 4 Mar. 2014), those who choose to be single are seen as "not respectable" and those who choose to live away from their families are seen as having "loose morals" (ibid.). The Hindu similarly notes that society "also generally marginalises single women and cruel caste and community traditions restrain them from living a life of dignity" (7 Sept. 2012).

BBC notes that India's cities are changing and are slowly beginning to accept single women; however, the change is "extremely slow and painful for many who are facing it every day" (7 Mar. 2014). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

2. Access to Employment

The Associate Professor stated that, in general,

single women's access to employment would depend on their training, their previous work experience, the duration of their absence from labour markets, their embeddedness in social networks, and the most important factor would be the support of their natal families, and their access to government or women's organisations. (Associate Professor 10 Apr. 2015)

With regard to access to women's organizations in the city of Chandigarh, the Associate Professor noted that "women in Chandigarh may have lower access to women's groups than women in Delhi or Mumbai" (ibid.). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

Sources report that the percentage of women in the workforce is declining (India 2014, 1; TPB 6 Mar. 2015; IndiaSpend 9 Mar. 2015). The authors of a March 2015 International Monetary Fund (IMF) working paper on female workers in India report that India has one of the lowest female labour force participation rates among emerging markets and developing countries (Das et al. Mar. 2015, 4). A 9 March 2015 article by IndiaSpend, an Indian "data journalism initiative" and non-profit organization that "utilize[s] open data to analyze a range of issues" to promote "better governance, transparency and accountability" (IndiaSpend n.d.), similarly reports that women's workforce participation in India is the lowest among the BRICS nations [emerging national economies of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa]. According to the authors of the 2015 IMF working paper, of the approximately 380 million working-age women in India, only 125 million are either currently employed or looking for work (Das et al. Mar. 2015, 5). India's Ministry of Women and Child Development notes that according to the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) on employment and unemployment, between 2004/2005 and 2011/2012, women's "recorded" work participation, for women over the age of 15, has declined from 33.3 percent to 25.3 percent in rural areas and from 16.6 percent to 14.7 percent in urban areas (India 2014, 1).

Sources report that the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry in India published a study which found that over the last 2 years, the female workforce has declined by 26.5 percent in sectors requiring night shifts and in "units" located in the outskirts of major cities (PTI 5 Mar. 2015; TPB 6 Mar. 2015). Sources report that the study found that "economic slowdown" and safety and security concerns were factors affecting the decline and that the cities of maximum concern include Delhi and Mumbai (ibid.; PTI 5 Mar. 2015).

According to economist Vinoj Abraham, who is cited in the IndiaSpend article, the women who do remain in the workforce are those from the "most vulnerable households, as marginalised informal paid labour" (9 Mar. 2015). The article adds that "[f]emale workers in India largely comprise of unorganised labour, and a vast majority in the unorganised informal sector include those engaged in agriculture, as low-paid subsistence workers" (ibid.). The authors of a 2014 paper on female labour force participation in India that is part of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Asia-Pacific Working Paper Series note that female participation in the workplace is "influenced" by marital status and that single women participate more than married women (Chaudhary and Verick, Oct. 2014, 16). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The Minister of Urban Development and Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation was quoted in a February 2015 article by the Tribune, a daily newspaper published in Chandigarh, as saying that "women are more vulnerable to the harshness of urban inequalities and they struggle more in terms of job security, pay parity, access to credit, [and] suitability of working conditions" (17 Feb. 2015). According to a 2015 report by the World Economic Forum (WEF), an "independent international organization committed to improving the state of the world through public-private cooperation" (WEF, n.d.), among participating countries, India has the biggest difference between women and men in average minutes spent per day on unpaid work - a gap of 300 minutes, while working women earn an average of $1,980 annually compared to men who earn $8,087 (ibid. 28, 66). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

3. Women's Rights to Housing, Land, Property and Inheritance

3.1 Access to Housing

According to the February 2015 Tribune article, the Minister of Urban Development and Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation was quoted as stating that women also struggle in terms of access to housing (17 Feb. 2015). The Associate Professor noted that it is more difficult for single women [than non-single women] to find housing in India and that women's groups have "highlighted the problem of shelter and residence for single women" in urban and rural areas (Associate Professor 27 Apr. 2015). The same source stated that

[i]n some cases, landlords may set rules for single women renters. For example, landlords may require that single women return by a certain time. Such rules may be difficult for single women to follow depending on their profession. Women working in the hospitality industry or as air hostesses or bar dancers have great difficulty with such rules. (ibid.)

A March 2014 BBC article by a single woman living in India similarly reports that people do not like to rent apartments to "single, professional women" because they are afraid that they will behave "immorally," or be a "bad" influence on neighbors, and that property owners are "always" looking for opportunities to evict single women (BBC 4 Mar. 2014). Sources report that should a single woman host a male friend they could be seen as being involved in prostitution (ibid.; Associate Professor 27 Apr. 2015).

Specific information on access to housing for single women in Chandigarh, Delhi and Mumbai could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

A June 2013 report by UN Women reports that single women of all categories (including elderly, widowed and abandoned women) are those women most vulnerable to poverty, and that many poor and elderly women "expressed major concerns about temporary housing," including poor dwelling structures and the "financial burden of regular maintenance" (UN June 2013, 78).

According to the Associate Professor, in general,

[w]omen may have legal rights, but given that the Indian legal system is lengthy, cumbersome, corrupt and expensive, there is in undeniable gap between law on paper and in practice and access to justice is precarious for many women, especially those coming from low caste, class, and minority backgrounds. (10 Apr. 2015)

Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

A December 2014 report by the UN Special Rapporteur for India, Leilani Farha, on the right to adequate housing and non-discrimination states that while the right to housing is not included in India's constitution, courts are now recognizing this right as "enforceable under the right to life" (UN 22 Dec. 2014, para. 51).

3.2 Land Rights

A March 2014 report on violence against homeless women in Delhi, published on the website of the Housing and Land Rights Network (HLRN) [2], South Asia Regional Programme, indicates that women in urban areas are increasingly becoming more vulnerable to homelessness and violence as a result of discriminatory laws and anti-poor legislation, as well as a lack of legal protection for housing rights and women's rights (Chaudhry et al. March 2014, 7). The same source notes the following additional factors contributing to homelessness of women in India:

[l]ack of secure tenure, lack of information about women's rights, lack of access to affordable social services ... lack of access to credit and housing subsidies, bureaucratic barriers preventing access to housing programmes, rising poverty and unemployment and discriminatory cultural and traditional practices. (ibid.)

According to the 7 March 2014 BBC article, "if a married couple splits up, the woman generally struggles to receive her fair share of the couple's property. And even what she is entitled to can get tied up in litigation in India's excruciatingly slow-moving courts." The Associate Professor stated that the concept of "matrimonial property is not sufficiently developed under Indian religious laws. Women might find it difficult to survive without the help of their natal families" (10 Apr. 2015).

The February 2015 article by Orissa Diary reports that there are hundreds of thousands of single women in Eastern India who have been denied their land rights and who are "being sidelined from developmental benefits as well as entitlements and rights" (20 Feb. 2015). According to the Associate Professor, feminist literature indicates that

there is a conceptual difference between the ownership of property for women, and control over it. For instance, a woman may have inherited agrarian property but may not be able to even step on it, let alone cultivate it, as it may be under the possession of her male kin. (10 Apr. 2015)

The same source explains that while widowed women have legal rights to inheritance and may have access to their husband's property and shelter, in many cases, "the husband's family might control his property and widowed women might find it difficult to gain access to it" (ibid.).

In India's Ministry of Rural Development's July 2013 Draft National Lands Reforms Policy, the government proposed improving women's land rights, particularly for female-headed households in rural areas, recognizing that rural households are "increasingly becoming de-facto female headed households" (India 18 July 2013, 17). Further information pertaining to the implementation of this reform policy could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4. Government Support Services

In the 2012 Hindu article, a member of the National Forum for Single Women's Rights was quoted as stating that there are "'very few laws and government schemes [for] single women'" (7 Sept. 2012). Media sources from 2013 and 2015 report that single women are now being recognized as a "vulnerable group" (Orissa Diary 20 Feb. 2015; The Independent 8 Mar. 2013) and are receiving more support from national and local governments (ibid.). According to the Independent, India's national census now recognizes divorced women; widows under the age of 40 are entitled to a "widow's pension [3]"; and single women are given "priority in recruitment" (ibid.). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4.1 Working Women's Hostels

A 23 March 2015 article by the Herald, an English daily newspaper in Goa state, indicates that "progressive" socio-economic advances in India have resulted in more women leaving their homes in search of employment. As a result, the demand for working women hostels is increasing (Herald 23 Mar. 2015). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the Associate Professor, "the government provides working women's hostels and shelters but these are very few in numbers and middle class women do not find it easy to access these" (10 Apr. 2015). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

A 19 March 2015 article by PTI reports that Maneka Gandhi, Minister of Women and Child Development, indicated that her ministry is financially supporting a government program for the construction and running of hostels for "working women who may be single, widowed, divorced or separated or married" and who have been the victims of violence. According to the article, Gandhi stated that 916 hostels "have been sanctioned under the scheme across the country" since 1972-73 (PTI 19 Mar. 2015).

A March 2015 article by the Times of India, An Indian English-language daily newspaper published in Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmadabad, reports that women's hostels in the city of Trichy and rural areas in the district consist of "crammed rooms, unhygienic toilet facilities, inferior quality of food and no guarantee on safety and security." (Times of India 23 Mar. 2015). A woman staying at a hostel reported that a minimum of five people stay in a room meant for two or three and that they have to "compromise" on the quality of food and toilet facilities (ibid.). The same article notes that many of the women's hostels are "manned" by men, violating guidelines, and lack cameras, which put women's safety at risk (ibid.). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4.1.1 Working Women Hostels in Delhi

The website of Delhi's Department of Women and Child indicates that there are 19 working women hostels in Delhi providing accommodations and daycare for working women, unmarried women, widows, divorcees, and separated women (India n.d.a). Further information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4.1.2 Working Women's Hostels in Chandigarh

The official website of the Chandigarh administration indicates that there are 3 working women's hostels in Chandigarh, located in the city's 11, 23 and 24 sectors (India n.d.b.). A 19 January 2015 article by the Tribune similarly reports that Chandigarh has three working women hostels in these sectors, but reports that the hostel in Sector 23 has been closed for the "past six years." According to the article, the remaining 2 hostels can only accommodate a total of 136 women, compared to the "thousands of women" who go to the city for work each year (The Tribune 19 Jan. 2015). The article further reports that there has been no increase in the number of working women hostels in the city of Chandigarh "'in the past 20 years" (ibid.). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4.1.3 Working Women's Hostels in Mumbai

Information regarding the number of working women's hostels currently in Mumbai could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response. A report published by the Tirpude College of Social Work in India on working women's hostels in Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, submitted to Delhi's Department of Women and Child Development, indicates that in 2002, there were 21 working women's hostels with an intake capacity of 1958 women (Tirpude n.d., 23).

4.2 Shelters in India

A 13 March 2015 press release by India's Ministry of Women and Child Development notes that the ministry administers Swadhar and Short Stay Home services for the relief and rehabilitation of women in difficult situations including those who are victims of rape (India 13 Mar. 2015). For further information on Swadhar Shelter homes and other services available to female victims of violence in India, see Response to Information Request IND105130.

Sources report that there are 150,000 to 200,000 homeless people in Delhi (HLRN Apr. 2014, 2; SAM:BKS Jan. 2014, 1) and of this number, approximately 10,000 to 15,000 are women and girls (ibid.). The HLRN reports that there are 231 homeless shelters in Delhi, including 147 temporary and 84 permanent shelters, which cover "less than two percent of the [city's] homeless population" (HLRN Apr. 2014, 2). The authors of the March 2014 report on violence against homeless women in Delhi published on the HLRN website states that homeless shelters in the city are "extremely inadequate," and according to Delhi's Social Welfare Secretary who is cited in the report, homeless shelters cover only five percent of the city's homeless population (Chaudhry et al. Mar. 2014, 8). The report further notes that there is only one shelter (with a capacity for 30 women) for the 10,000 homeless women in the city (ibid.). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4.3 Support to Training and Empowerment Programme for Women (STEP)

Operated by the Ministry of Women and Child Development, STEP is a program that provides training to poor and marginalized women in traditional trades, most often in the informal sector (India 2014, 2). According to the ministry, the objectives of the program are to increase the employability of women and their ability to become self-employed and entrepreneurs through extended training on skills development (ibid.). The target age group for the program is women 16 years of age and older (ibid.). The program grants funding to eligible organizations to administer the training (ibid., 3). According to data provided on the ministry's website, there are 104 ongoing STEP projects in the country (India n.d.c, 1-17).

4.4 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)

Sources indicate that the country's public employment program under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) guarantees every adult (both men and women) a minimum of 100 days of employment in unskilled manual labour each year (Das et al. Mar. 2015, 6; UN 14 Oct. 2013), for a minimum wage of 120 Indian rupees [C$2.24] per day (ibid.). Sources note that the program mandates that one-third of its participants be women and ensures their equal pay (ibid.; Das et al. Mar. 2015, 6). According to UN Women, while the national female participation rate in the program is 56 percent, female participation in many states is "still low" (UN 14 Oct. 2013). Further information about the program could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Notes

[1] Established in 2009 by women leaders representing over 50,000 low income single women across 8 states, the National Forum for Single Women's Rights works to promote single women's rights in the country and strengthen state-wide single women's associations (National Forum for Single Women's Rights, Oct. 2009).

[2] The Housing and Land Rights Network (HLRN) is a network that works "for the recognition, defence, promotion, and realisation of the human rights to adequate housing and land" in South Asia (HLRN n.d.).

[3] The widow's pension has increased from "200 Rupees [C$3.74] to 400-500 Rupees [C$7.67-C$9.34]" (The Independent Mar. 8 2013).

References

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Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, Carleton University. 27 April 2015. Telephone interview with the Research Directorate.

_____. 10 April 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). 7 March 2014. Rupa Jha. "India's Invisible Widows, Divorcees and Single Women." [Accessed 6 May 2015]

_____. 4 March 2014. Suruchi Sharma. "No Country for Single Women." [Accessed 16 Mar. 2015]

Chaudhary, Ruchika and Sher Verick. October 2014. Female Labour Force Participation in India and Beyond. International Labour Organization (ILO) Asia-Pacific Working Paper Series. [Accessed 1 Apr. 2015]

Chaudhry, Shivani, Amita Joseph and Indu Prakash Singh. March 2014. Violence and Violations: The Reality of Homeless Women in India. [Accessed 7 Apr. 2015]

DNA India. 27 September 2013. Rashi Aditi Ghosh. "Work or Home, no say for Women in India." [Accessed 16 Mar. 2015]

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Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: The following were unable to provide information for this Response: a professor of women's and gender studies at Sonoma State University, California.

The following were unable to provide information within the time constraints of this Response: assistant professors, chairperson and professor, Department Cum Centre for Women's Studies and Development, Panjab University.

Attempts to contact the following were unsuccessful within the time constraints of this Response: Anveshi Research Centre for Women's Studies; professor of women's studies, University of Victoria; Asmita Resource Centre for Women; assistant professor, Department for Women's Studies and Development, Panjab University; Breakthrough TV; Department Cum Centre for Women's Studies and Development, Panjab University; Institute for Research on Women and Gender; Ekta Parishad; Indian Association for Women's Studies; Institute for Human Development, New Delhi; International Development Research Centre; Jagori; Krantijyoti Savitribai Phule Women's Studies Centre, Savitribai Phule Pune University; Lawyers Collective; Multiple Action Research Group; National Human Rights Commission; Nazdeek; Pradan; professor of women's studies and political science, University of Michigan; Programme on Women's Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights; Research Centre for Women's Studies, SNDT Women's University, Mumbai.

Internet sites, including: Accomodation Times; Amnesty International; Asian Centre for Human Rights; Azad India Foundation; Centre for Advocacy and Research; Freedom House; Global Post; Human Rights Watch; India - Justice Verma Commission, National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector, Planning Commission, Press Information Bureau; Indo-Asian News Service; Social Awareness and Voluntary Education; United States - Central Intelligence Agency, Department of State.