Education under Attack 2014 - Sudan

More than 1,000 university students were arrested, more than 15 killed and more than 450 injured in 2009-2012, mostly in demonstrations on campus or in education-related protests. Many of the injuries resulted from security forces using excessive force. There were dozens of incidents of attacks on, and military use of, schools.^[1457]

Context

In Sudan's western region of Darfur, fighting between government forces and pro-government militia and rebels over the past decade has left 300,000 people dead and more than two million displaced,^[1458] with schools set on fire and looted and students and teachers targeted by armed groups.^[1459]

Sudan's protracted civil war between the government and southern rebels ended in 2005 with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, which paved the way for South Sudan's independence in July 2011.^[1460] However, unresolved secession issues have led to cross-border violence, particularly in the three disputed areas of Abyei, Blue Nile and South Kordofan.^[1461]

Students, teachers, schools and universities have been targeted during decades of conflict and instability. The government exercises tight control over higher education, appointing public university vice-chancellors and determining the curriculum.^[1462]

As of 2011, approximately 72 per cent of adults were literate.^[1463] In 2009, before the secession of the South, gross enrolment at primary level was 73 per cent^[1464] and 39 per cent at secondary level.^[1465] Tertiary gross enrolment was 6 per cent in 2000.^[1466]

Attacks on schools

There were different accounts of how many schools were attacked during 2009-2012. According to Arry Organization for Human Rights and Development, 48 schools were destroyed in attacks by government forces in South Kordofan between April 2011 and February 2012, but it was not specified if these were targeted attacks.^[1467] Other UN, human rights and media reports documented 12 cases of schools or education buildings being destroyed, damaged or looted, including primary and secondary schools and a teacher training institute, in the areas of Darfur, Abyei, Blue Nile and South Kordofan during 2009-2012, but again it was not specified how many were targeted.^[1468]

According to the UN, three instances of burning, looting and destruction of schools occurred between January 2009 and February 2011.^[1469] For example, militia attacked a school in Tawila, North Darfur, in September 2010, killing four children who had sought refuge there.^[1470] The reported number of schools bombed or shelled then increased between June 2011 and April 2012 as fighting intensified between the government and the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Movement/Army-North (SPLM/A-N) in Blue Nile and South Kordofan,^[1471] and aerial bombing of civilian targets by the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) took a significant toll,^[1472] although it has not been verified whether the schools were deliberately targeted. For example, in August 2011, an SAF Antonov bomber dropped four bombs on Al Masha Secondary School in Kauda^[1473] and in February 2012, the SAF destroyed two buildings of a bible school in the village of Heiban, dropping two bombs into its compound.^[1474] Mortar shelling, for which the SPLM-N claimed responsibility and which the UN criticized as indiscriminate, also damaged one school in Kadugli in October 2012.^[1475]

The UN estimated that as of December 2011, 137,900 schoolchildren in South Kordofan were missing out on education because their schools had been damaged, destroyed or were still dangerous because explosive remnants of past fighting remained on site, or were being used as shelters by armed forces and IDPs. However, it is not specified how many schools were damaged or destroyed in targeted attacks.^[1476]

Attacks on school students, teachers and other education personnel

Media and human rights reports suggest that at least 29 school students, two teachers and one head teacher were killed and another three students and a head teacher's assistant were wounded in attacks in 2009-2012 by rebels, soldiers or unidentified armed men in the Darfur region, though the motives were not known in all cases.^[1477]

In some incidents, the perpetrators appeared to be members of armed groups. For example, a group of armed men killed two Fur high school students from Tournato village on their way to pay their school fees at Kass High School on 13 December 2009.^[1478] Members of a militia allegedly killed a primary school student in Zam Zam camp in North Darfur in December 2012, while he was studying with six classmates who escaped unharmed.^[1479] In October 2011, four armed men reportedly shot and killed the head teacher of Shagra Eltadamoun primary school and wounded his assistant while they were on their way to submit the names and fees of students sitting for the national primary examinations.^[1480] In one of the most serious incidents, but not necessarily a targeted one, suspected pro-government militia reportedly killed 18 schoolchildren when they opened fire in a market next to the elementary school in Tabra, North Darfur, in September 2010.^[1481]

In other incidents, teachers and students were killed, injured or arrested by government authorities. On 31 July 2012, at least six secondary school students, aged 16 to 18, were killed and more than 50 other people injured during confrontations between police and anti-government protesters during reportedly largely peaceful demonstrations in Nyala. According to Human Rights Watch, the protests started at the schools and spread into the streets with protesters burning tyres. Schools were reported to have been closed temporarily following the incident.^[1482] On 1 November 2012, the National Intelligence and Security Services (NISS) reportedly arrested and tortured a dozen secondary school and university students in Nyala, South Darfur. One of them received acid burns on his hand.^[1483] Relatives said the victims were given electric shocks using water and car batteries.^[1484] The students were accused of stealing money from the NISS agents^[1485] but their families said the real motive for their arrest was their presumed participation in the Nyala protests.^[1486]

In another incident on 19 December 2012, police used teargas and batons to disperse teachers protesting against low wages and alleged corruption in the Ministry of Education.^[1487]

Military use of schools

According to the UN, as of February 2011, three schools were used by the SAF in South Kordofan, including one primary school in El Buram town which was occupied despite the fact that pupils were attending classes nearby.^[1488] Military use of schools in El Buram by the SAF continued throughout 2011.^[1489]

Attacks on higher education

Attacks on higher education students, academics and personnel

A compilation of human rights and media reports suggests that 15 or more university students were killed^[1490] and at least 479 were injured,^[1491] many when police and security forces used excessive force against students demonstrating on campus over university policies,^[1492] including limits on political and cultural activity on campus and the charging of tuition fees for Darfuri students from which they were supposed to be exempted by government agreement.^[1493]

These incidents took place across the country including in Gedaref, Kassala, Khartoum, Nyala, Port Sudan and River Nile state. Furthermore, according to figures compiled for this study from over 50 human rights and media reports, at least 1,040 students^[1494] were arrested by security agents, the majority of them in protests related to education or which began at, or took place at, education institutions. Many reported torture or intimidation during their detention.^[1495] Two academics, one university staff member and a group of researchers were also reported to have been arrested during 2009-2012.^[1496] In addition, a group of seven Southern Sudanese students was reportedly abducted and forcibly conscripted in Khartoum by Southern militias and taken to a training camp outside Khartoum, but it is unclear if they were abducted at or en route to or from campus.^[1497]

More than half of the arrests were made during a series of student protests and police violence that began at the University of Khartoum in December 2011. Over the course of two months, raids on student residences and arrests led to dozens of student injuries and at least 552 student arrests during protests sparked initially by the displacement resulting from construction of the Merowe Dam.^[1498]

Riot police initially injured at least 20 students and arrested scores during a campus rally on 22 December 2011. They raided dormitories and detained 16 more students that evening and arrested more than 100 students in a student residential compound the next morning as demonstrations continued.^[1499] Some students were injured in the arrests.^[1500] Several days later, police reportedly took into custody at least 70 more when they broke up another sit-in, using tear gas, batons and warning shots to disperse students.^[1501] The university was closed on 29 December but the sit-in continued. By 1 January 2012, three student leaders and at least four other students had been arrested.^[1502] More than 300 students continuing to stay at the university were reportedly arrested on 17 February 2012 in pre-dawn raids on dormitories. The university remained closed until mid-March 2012.^[1503]

Student demonstrations were similarly suppressed at Gezira University in early December 2012, when authorities shut down the university after four Darfuri students were found drowned in a nearby canal. The four had been arrested, along with at least 50 other students, while participating in a peaceful sit-in over tuition fees, according to the Darfur Students Association (DSA).^[1504] Dozens of other students were reportedly injured in the first sit-in,^[1505] and an additional 60 were injured in fighting between police and students during the demonstrations that occurred after the bodies were found.^[1506] The violence spread to other universities. On 11 December 2012, in protests at Omdurman Islamic University in Khartoum over the same issue, around 140 students were arrested, another 180 injured, 450 student rooms burned down, and laptops and mobile phones allegedly looted by security agents and supporters of Sudan's ruling National Congress Party (NCP).^[1507]

Other students were similarly targeted during and after protests or meetings at academic institutions. Examples include the arrest on 20 April 2011 of 17 students affiliated with the United Popular Front, a political party supporting Abdul Wahid Al Nour, a Darfuri rebel leader, from the campus of their university, Al Nilein, after they held a demonstration calling for regime change in Khartoum;^[1508] and the arrest on 17 January 2012 of 11 student members of the Democratic Unionist Party following a public talk at the Faculty of Engineering in the University of the Nile Valley in Al Damer.^[1509] Forty-two Darfuri students reportedly resigned from the Red Sea University in protest over arrests and harassment by security services.^[1510]

Students, primarily of Darfuri background, were attacked at academic events and in academic spaces and sometimes subsequently tortured or killed. On 11 March 2009, for example, a group identified as current and former students and NISS officials disrupted an authorized student forum attended by approximately 200 students at Dilling University. Ten students were injured after being hit with sticks and iron bars.^[1511]

Additionally, on 11 June 2009, 15 female Darfuri students at the University of Khartoum were assaulted by men dressed in black abayas, who had reportedly entered their dormitory. The NISS detained many of the women who had been assaulted, along with others living in the same dormitory. Five of those injured sought medical treatment at a hospital but police forced them to leave.^[1512]

In other cases, students of Darfuri origin and Darfur activists were allegedly tortured by state agents. For instance, the NISS seized a Darfuri student of the Department of Education at the University of Khartoum in front of the campus in early February 2010. His body, found the next day in a street in Khartoum, showed signs of torture, and the NISS sought to have it buried without an autopsy, according to Amnesty International.^[1513] Similarly, the body of another student, reportedly abducted by NISS agents from the University of Khartoum and found on 18 June 2011, showed signs of torture; the previous day, the student had delivered a speech about the situation in Darfur. The NISS denied involvement.^[1514]

Disputes between rival student movements also turned violent. Between October 2010 and May 2012, several clashes occurred between students supporting rival political movements that left at least 20 students wounded,^[1515] one of them critically. For example, at Nyala University, some eight students were injured in violence between NCP-affiliated students, who were supported by security personnel, and pro-Sudan Liberation Movement students.^[1516]

In another incident, on 24 May 2010, an armed group believed to be an NCP-influenced student organization broke up an engagement party in the female dormitories at Dalnaj University, allegedly at the request of a dormitory supervisor. The group beat the women with iron sticks and critically wounded a third-year student in the Faculty of Science. According to the Sudan Human Rights Monitor, the student was reportedly denied medical care by the Students Support Fund and the dormitory administration, and later died. The next day, a group of students demonstrating in solidarity with their peers was fired at with live ammunition and tear gas by police forces. Two students were killed and at least 20 injured.^[1517]

Security services also targeted professors, researchers and campus speakers perceived to be undertaking controversial research or making anti-government remarks. According to the African Centre for Peace and Justice Studies, on 24 November 2011, the NISS arrested and raided the offices of members of an AIDS prevention group from Al Gezira University that had just carried out a survey on the prevalence of HIV and AIDS. The members were released later in the day, but all reports and data related to the survey conducted were confiscated and the Director-General of the Ministry of Health suspended the research.^[1518] On 20 February 2012, NISS agents arrested Professor Mohamed Zain Al-bideen, Dean of the College of Higher Education at the University of Al Zaiem Al Azhari in Omdurman, while leaving his university office, and interrogated him about an article he had written that was critical of Sudan's President. He was held for 15 days in a small cell and denied contact with his family as well as a lawyer, before being released without charge.^[1519]

Attacks on education in 2013

During the first half of 2013, SAF aerial bombardment of civilian targets, primarily in South Kordofan but also in North Darfur, damaged or destroyed several schools, injuring at least one student in the process;^[1520] shelling in the area of Dresa, north-east of East Jebel Marra, North Darfur, reportedly razed one school to the ground in January.^[1521] It is not known if these were targeted attacks.

A number of schools in Al Sareif Beni Hussein locality in North Darfur were reportedly damaged or destroyed by looting and arson during fighting between the Beni Hussein and Abbala tribes in the first half of the year.^[1522]

Media sources reported that at least one secondary school student was shot dead and another 10 or more injured as police armed with tear gas and live ammunition attempted to disperse protesters demonstrating over the increased cost of requirements for sitting for the Sudan Secondary School Leaving Certificate.^[1523] Another student was killed and four more were injured outside a National Service centre while waiting to obtain a seal required for their university applications when a soldier fired live ammunition after students had reportedly become impatient over delays and perceived corruption.^[1524]

Arrests and injury of university students by security forces continued in 2013. By the end of September, at least 11 university students had been injured^[1525] and another 65 arrested.^[1526]

In one incident in May, nine students sustained injuries after being shot on the main campus of El Fasher University, North Darfur. The students had reportedly been attending a meeting when an estimated 70 armed student militia members entered the campus, trying to garner support for a government 'mobilization' campaign against armed opposition groups. When the students failed to react, clashes broke out and the militia group began firing into the air, wounding one student. As students attempted to flee, they were met at the campus gate by police and NISS forces who began firing live ammunition into the crowd, wounding eight more.^[1527]

In September, some 22 Darfuri students were arrested and several injured after security forces stormed the campus of the University of Peace in Babanusa, West Kordofan, to break up a sit-in protesting against a university policy requiring Darfuri students to pay tuition fees, despite a political agreement^[1528] exempting them from doing so. The police reportedly used live ammunition, tear gas, batons and air rifles against protesters.^[1529] The university subsequently banned 30 Darfuri students from the university for a period ranging from one to two years.^[1530]

1457 This profile covers attacks on education 2009-2012, with an additional section on attacks in 2013.

1458 James Copnall, "Darfur Conflict: Sudan's Bloody Stalemate," BBC News, 29 April 2013; "Sudan: Conflict Profile," Peace Direct.

1459 See for example: Brendan O'Malley, Education under Attack 2010 (Paris: UNESCO, 2010), 228-9; UNSC, Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General, A/63/785 – S/2009/158, 26 March 2009; and US Department of State, 2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 25 February 2009).

1460 For the sake of consistency, the information covered in this profile pertains to the geography of Sudan at the time of writing, even for the 2.5 years prior to the independence of South Sudan. The autonomous region of Southern Sudan pre-independence and South Sudan since independence are covered in a separate profile.

1461 "Sudan Conflict Profile," Peace Direct; and "Sudan Profile," BBC News, last updated 26 October 2013.

1462 US Department of State, 2012 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2013).

1463 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, "Education (all levels) Profile – Sudan," UIS Statistics in Brief (2011).

1464 The World Bank, "School enrollment – primary (% gross)," The World Bank Data (2009).

1465 The World Bank, "School enrollment – secondary (% gross)," The World Bank Data (2009).

1466 The World Bank, "School enrollment – tertiary (% gross)," The World Bank Data (2000).

1467 Arry Organization for Human Rights and Development, Nuba Mountains Peoples: Alone in the Face of Death – Nuba Mountains Crisis Comprehensive Report (April 2011 – February 2012), (Arry, 5 March 2012), 4.

1468 UNSC, Report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict in the Sudan, S/2011/413, 5 July 2011, paras 53-54 (b), (c); UNSC, Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General, A/66/782 – S/2012/261, 26 April 2012, paras 112 and 117; Amnesty International, "We can run away from bombs, but not from hunger": Sudan's Refugees in South Sudan (Amnesty International, June 2012), 10, 21; "SAF Antonov drops four bombs in Al Masha Secondary School, Kauda," 22 August 2011; HRW, "Sudan: Southern Kordofan Civilians Tell of Air Strike Horror," 30 August 2011; HRW, Under Siege : Indiscriminate Bombing and Abuses in Sudan's Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile States (New York: HRW, December 2012), 23-4; Enough Project, "Sudan Army Targets School in Latest Attack on Civilians," 3 February 2012; CNN Wire Staff, "Bombs hit evangelical Bible school in Sudan, group says," CNN, 3 February 2012; HRW, "Sudan: Crisis Conditions in Southern Kordofan," 4 May 2012; HRW, "Sudan: Blue Nile Civilians Describe Attacks, Abuses," 23 April 2012; Eric Sande, "Sudan: Education under Threat in South Kordofan," News from Africa, 26 April 2012; "Six civilians killed in rebel attack on South Kordofan's capital," Sudan Tribune, 8 October 2012; "Sudan: Mortar Attack in Kadugli Kills and Injures Dozens," Radio Dabanga, 9 October 2012; "Mortar attack on South Kordofan capital, one woman killed," Sudan Tribune, 8 October 2012.

1469 UNSC, Report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict in the Sudan, S/2011/413, 5 July 2011, paras 53-4.

1470 Ibid., para 54 (c)

1471 The SPLA-N is the armed wing of the Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North (SPLM-N), an opposition group in South Kordofan and Blue Nile, which was aligned with South Sudan's ruling party, the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), and its military arm, the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), before South Sudan's independence in July 2011. When the country split, those affiliated with the SPLM/A in South Kordofan and Blue Nile states became the SPLM/A-North.

1472 United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS), Report on the Human Rights Situation during the Violence in Southern Kordofan, Sudan (UNMIS, June 2011), 3; HRW, "Sudan: Southern Kordofan Civilians Tell of Air Strike Horror," 30 August 2011; and HRW, "Sudan: Blue Nile Civilians Describe Attacks, Abuses," 23 April 2012.

1473 HRW, "Sudan: Southern Kordofan Civilians Tell of Air Strike Horror," 30 August 2011; "SAF Antonov drops four bombs in Al Masha Secondary School, Kauda," 22 August 2011.

1474 Enough Project, "Sudan Army Targets School in Latest Attack on Civilians," 3 February 2012; and CNN Wire Staff, "Bombs Hit Evangelical Bible School in Sudan, Group Says," CNN, 3 February 2012;

1475 "Six civilians killed in rebel attack on South Kordofan's capital," Sudan Tribune, 8 October 2012; "Sudan: Mortar Attack in Kadugli Kills and Injures Dozens," Radio Dabanga, 9 October 2012; "Mortar attack on South Kordofan capital, one woman killed," Sudan Tribune, 8 October 2012.

1476 UNSC, Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General, A/66/782 – S/2012/261, 26 April 2012, para 117.

1477 African Centre for Justice and Peace Studies (ACJPS), Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2009-May 2010 (ACJPS, 2010), 13; "UN Human Rights Envoy to Sudan Urges Darfur Attack Probe," Sudan Tribune, 14 September 2010; HRW, Darfur in the Shadows: The Sudanese Government's Ongoing Attacks on Civilians and Human Rights (New York: HRW, June 2011), 21; "Sudan: School Headmaster Shot Dead Near El Fasher," Radio Dabanga, 24 October 2011; "Sudan: Student Killed in West Darfur," Radio Dabanga, 1 November 2011; "Sudan: Religion Teacher Killed in Brutal Attack in Serba," Radio Dabanga, 16 February 2012; "Eight killed during anti-government demos in Nyala of Sudan's Darfur region," Sudan Tribune, 31 July 2012; HRW, "Sudan: Police Fatally Shoot Darfur Protesters – Investigate and Prosecute Authorities Responsible," 3 August 2012; "Sudan's justice minister orders to probe death of Nyala protesters," Sudan Tribune, 2 August 2012; "Schools shut after 8 killed in Sudan demo," AFP, 1 August 2012; "UN concerned over reports of human rights violations in Sudan, South Sudan," UN News Centre, 11 December 2012; "Sudanese Soldier Kills Secondary School Student," Radio Dabanga, 29 October 2012; "Sudan: Abu Tira Forces Allegedly Kill Student," Radio Dabanga, 15 December 2012.

1478 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor: December 2009 – May 2010, 13.

1479 "Sudan: Abu Tira Forces Allegedly Kill Student," Radio Dabanga, 15 December 2012.

1480 "Sudan: School Headmaster Shot Dead Near El Fasher," Radio Dabanga, 24 October 2011.

1481 "UN human right envoy to Sudan urges Darfur attack probe," Sudan Tribune, 14 September 2010.

1482 "Eight Killed during Anti-Government Demos in Nyala of Sudan's Darfur Region," Sudan Tribune, 31 July 2012; HRW, "Sudan: Police Fatally Shoot Darfur Protesters – Investigate and Prosecute Authorities Responsible," 3 August 2012; "Sudan's Justice Minister Orders To Probe Death of Nyala Protesters," Sudan Tribune, 2 August 2012; "Schools Shut after 8 Killed in Sudan Demo," AFP, 1 August 2012; and "UN Concerned over Reports of Human Rights Violations in Sudan, South Sudan," UN News Centre, 11 December 2012.

1483 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor: October 2012 – February 2013, 16.

1484 "Sudan: Students Reportedly Tortured in Nyala," Radio Dabanga, 17 November 2012.

1485 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor: October 2012 – February 2013, 16.

1486 "Sudan: Students Reportedly Tortured in Nyala," Radio Dabanga, 17 November 2012.

1487 "Sudan's Police Break up Schoolteachers' Protest," Sudan Tribune, 19 December 2012.

1488 UNSC, Report of the Secretary-General on Children and Armed Conflict in the Sudan, S/2011/413, 5 July 2011, para 53.

1489 UNSC, Children and Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General, A/66/782 – S/2012/261, 26 April 2012, para 117.

1490 "Protest at funeral of 'tortured' Darfur student," Reuters, 15 February 2010; ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor: December 2009 – May 2010, (ACJPS, 2010; US Department of State, 2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 8 April 2011); "Two students killed demonstrating against 'coward' Darfur mediator'," Radio Dabanga, 1 December 2010; Maram Mazen, "Two Killed After Police Open Fire at Protest by Students in Sudan's Darfur," Bloomberg, 2 December 2010; Opheera McDoom, "Sudanese student dies after protests: activists," Reuters, 31 January 2011; "Sudan student 'killed' while protesting in Omdurman," BBC News, 31 January 2011; Amnesty International, "Sudan urged to end protest crackdown," 31 January 2011; HRW, "Sudan: Violent Response to Peaceful Protests," 3 February 2011; "Student dies at protest in Sudan's Darfur: report," AFP, 17 March 2011; "Sudan: Darfur's UPF Says the Murdered Student Was One of Its Members," 18 March 2011; US Department of State, 2011 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 24 May 2012; HRW, Darfur in the Shadows: The Sudanese Government's Ongoing Attacks on Civilians and Human Rights (New York: HRW, 2011; Blake Evans-Pritchard, Zakia Yousif, Tajeldin Abdhalla, "Darfur Students Under Pressure in Sudan – Concerns about unfair targeting of young people from western region," Institute for War and Peace Reporting, ACR Issue 314, 28 February 2012; "Sudan campus shut after four Darfur students 'dead," AFP, 8 December 2012; Khalid Abdelaziz, "Sudan police fire teargas at student protest," Reuters, 11 December 2012; "UN concerned over reports of human rights violations in Sudan, South Sudan," UN News Centre, 11 December 2012; Amnesty International, "Sudan must end violent repression of student protests," 12 December 2012; Wagdy Sawahel, "Fees, student deaths spark Arab Spring-style protests," University World News, Issue No: 252, 13 December 2012; and Khalid Abdelaziz, "Sudan police teargas protesters after student deaths," Reuters, 9 December 2012.

1491 US Department of State, 2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 11 March 2010), 3; ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2009-May 2010 (ACJPS, 2010); US Department of State, 2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 8 April 2011); Hashim Mustafa, "8 Students wounded in violence at Nyala University," Radio Miraya, 17 October 2010; "Two students killed demonstrating against 'coward' Darfur mediator," Radio Dabanga, 1 December 2010; Maram Mazen, "Two Killed After Police Open Fire at Protest by Students in Sudan's Darfur," Bloomberg, 2 December 2010; Opheera McDoom, "Students protest in Sudan's north over price rises," Reuters, 13 January 2011; "Student dies at protest in Sudan's Darfur: report," AFP, 17 March 2011; ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor February-March 2011 (ACJPS, 2011); ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor April-May 2011 (ACJPS, 2011); "Khartoum University raided," Radio Dabanga, 22 December 2011; HRW, "Sudan: End Violence Against Peaceful Protesters," 3 January 2012; ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2011-January 2012 (ACJPS, 2012); "Death of Darfur rebel leader sparks student brawl in Sudan's capital," Sudan Tribune, 28 December 2011; Blake Evans-Pritchard, Zakia Yousif, Tajeldin Abdhalla, "Darfur Students Under Pressure in Sudan – Concerns about unfair targeting of young people from western region," Institute for War and Peace Reporting, ACR Issue 314, 28 February 2012; "12 students injured in attack at Nyala university," Radio Dabanga, 17 May 2012; HRW, "Sudan: Violent Crackdown on Protesters," 26 June 2012; "Sudan: Protests in Sudan – Media Blackout and Large-Scale Arrests," Katamat Monitor, 12 July 2012; "Sudan: Darfur Students Beat and Arrested for Strike," Radio Dabanga, 1 October 2012; "Sudan: 29 Darfuri University Students Arrested," Radio Dabanga, 2 October 2012; Abdelmoneim Abu Edris Ali, "Six hurt in Sudan protests over student deaths: AFP," AFP, 9 December 2012; "Sudan: Student Protests in Khartoum Leave 60 Injured, Sources," Radio Dabanga, 11 December 2012; Wagdy Sawahel, "Fees, student deaths spark Arab Spring-style protests," University World News, Issue No:252, 13 December 2012; "Sudan: Darfur Student Association – 140 Students Arrested After Protests," Radio Dabanga,13 December 2012; and "Sudan: Students Attacked at Khartoum University, Several Injured," Radio Dabanga, 23 December 2012.

1492 See for example: HRW, "Sudan: End Violence Against Peaceful Protesters," 3 January 2012; "Sudan's top university re-opens amid heightened tension," Sudan Tribune, 18 March 2012; "Sudan: 'Senar' University Calls the Riots Police to Disperse the Demonstrations of the Students," The Arabic Network for Human Rights Information, 14 November 2012; Abdelmoneim Abu Edris Ali, "Sudan campus shut after four Darfur students 'dead'," AFP, 8 December 2012; Khalid Abdelaziz, "Sudan police fire teargas at student protest," Reuters, 11 December 2012; "UN concerned over reports of human rights violations in Sudan, South Sudan," UN News Centre, 11 December 2012; Amnesty International, "Sudan must end violent repression of student protests," 12 December 2012; and Wagdy Sawahel, "Fees, student deaths spark Arab Spring-style protests," University World News, Issue No: 252, 13 December 2012.

1493 See for example: '"Student dies at protest in Sudan's Darfur: report'," AFP, 17 March 2011; HRW, Darfur in the Shadows: The Sudanese Government's Ongoing Attacks on Civilians and Human Rights (New York: HRW, 2011; "Sudan: Darfur Students Beat and Arrested for Strike," Radio Dabanga, 1 October 2012; "Sudan: 29 Darfuri University Students Arrested," Radio Dabanga, 2 October 2012; "Sudan: 'Senar' University Calls the Riots Police to Disperse the Demonstrations of the Students," The Arabic Network for Human Rights Information, 14 November 2012; Abdelmoneim Abu Edris Ali, "Sudan campus shut after four Darfur students 'dead'," AFP, 8 December 2012; Khalid Abdelaziz, "Sudan police fire teargas at student protest," Reuters, 11 December 2012; "UN concerned over reports of human rights violations in Sudan, South Sudan," UN News Centre, 11 December 2012; Amnesty International, "Sudan must end violent repression of student protests," 12 December 2012; Wagdy Sawahel, "Fees, student deaths spark Arab Spring-style protests," University World News, Issue No: 252, 13 December 2012; and Khalid Abdelaziz, "Sudan police teargas protesters after student deaths," Reuters, 9 December 2012.

1494 Amnesty International, Agents of Fear: The National Security Service in Sudan (London: Amnesty International, 2010); HRW, "Sudan: Government Repression Threatens Fair Elections," 21 March 2010; US Department of State, 2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 11 March 2010); ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2009-May 2010 (ACJPS, 2010); US Department of State, 2011 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 24 May 2012; The Observatory for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders (OBS), International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH), and World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT), Steadfast in Protest: Annual Report 2011, 133; US Department of State, 2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 8 April 2011); Opheera McDoom, "Students protest in Sudan's north over price rises," Reuters, 13 January 2011; "Khartoum University students arrested in Sudan security services raid," Sudan Tribune, 15 February 2011; Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2012 – Sudan; ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor April-May 2011 (ACJPS, 2011); Amnesty International, "Document – Sudan: Further Information – Five Sudanese Activists Released," FU UA: 123/11 Index: AFR 54/033/2011, 10 October 2011; HRW, Darfur in the Shadows: The Sudanese Government's Ongoing Attacks on Civilians and Human Rights (New York: HRW, 2011); ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor October-November 2011 (ACJPS, 2011); ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2011-January 2012 (ACJPS, 2012); "Darfuri students threaten to leave university," Radio Dabanga, 25 December 2011; "Sudan: Darfuri Students Leave University in Protest," 26 December 2011; "Khartoum University raided," Radio Dabanga, 22 December 2011; Salma El Wardany, "Sudan Police Fire Tear Gas, Arrest 73 Students at Anti-Government Protests," Bloomberg, 25 December 2011; "Sudan: Police says opposition parties behind student protests," Sudan Tribune, 27 December 2011; HRW, "Sudan: End Violence Against Peaceful Protesters," 3 January 2012; Amnesty International, "Document – Sudan: Further Information – Student Activist Released Without Charge: Taj Alsir Jaafar," 24 February 2012; "Sudan police raid university dorm, arrest hundreds," Associated Press, 17 February 2012; "Sudan's top university re-opens amid heightened tension," Sudan Tribune, 18 March 2012; "Sudan police raid campus, arrest hundreds: activist," Reuters, 17 February 2012; Amnesty International, "Document – Sudan: Further Information – Sudanese Student Activist Released: Haidar Mahmoud Abderrahman Manis," 24 May 2012; HRW, "Sudan: Violent Crackdown on Protesters," 26 June 2012; "SUDAN: Austerity package sparks protests," IRIN, 20 June 2012; "Sudan Revolt Day 5 – New Arrests and More Victims," Radio Dabanga, 20 June 2012; "Sudan police disperse austerity protests," Reuters, 21 June 2012; "Police quell student protest in East Sudan: witnesses," Reuters, 27 June 2012; "Sudan: Darfur Students Beat and Arrested for Strike," Radio Dabanga, 1 October 2012; "Sudan: 29 Darfuri University Students Arrested," Radio Dabanga, 2 October 2012; Abdelmoneim Abu Edris Ali, "Sudan campus shut after four Darfur students 'dead'," AFP, 8 December 2012; Amnesty International, "Sudan must end violent repression of student protests," 12 December 2012; Wagdy Sawahel, "Fees, student deaths spark Arab Spring-style protests," University World News, Issue No: 252, 13 December 2012; Khalid Abdelaziz, "Sudan police teargas protesters after student deaths," Reuters, 9 December 2012; Abdelmoneim Abu Edris Ali, "Six hurt in Sudan protests over student deaths: AFP," AFP, 9 December 2012; "Sudan: Student Protests in Khartoum Leave 60 Injured, Sources," 11 December 2012; and "Sudan: Darfur Student Association – 140 Students Arrested After Protests," Radio Dabanga, 13 December 2012.

1495 See for example: ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2009-May 2010 (ACJPS, 2010); ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor April-May 2011 (ACJPS, 2011); and HRW, "Sudan: Torture, Abuse of Demonstrators," 11 July 2012.

1496 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor October – November 2011 (ACJPS, 2011); ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2011 – January 2012 (ACJPS, 2012); and Amnesty International, "Document – Sudan: Sudanese Academic Released Without Charge: Mohamed Zain Al-Abideen," 7 March 2012.

1497 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2011-January 2012 (ACJPS, 2012), 16.

1498 HRW, "Sudan: End Violence Against Peaceful Protesters," 3 January 2012; "Khartoum University Raided," Radio Dabanga, 22 December 2011; Salma El Wardany, "Sudan Police Fire Tear Gas, Arrest 73 Students at Anti-Government Protests," Bloomberg, 25 December 2011; and "Sudan: Police Says Opposition Parties behind Student Protests," Sudan Tribune, 27 December 2011.

1499 HRW, "Sudan: End Violence Against Peaceful Protesters," 3 January 2012; ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2011-January 2012 (ACJPS, 2012), 11.

1500 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2011-January 2012 (ACJPS, 2012), 11.

1501 HRW, 'Sudan: End Violence Against Peaceful Protesters', 3 January 2012; and Salma El Wardany, "Sudan Police Fire Tear Gas, Arrest 73 Students at Anti-Government Protests," Bloomberg, 25 December 2011.

1502 HRW, "Sudan: End Violence Against Peaceful Protesters," 3 January 2012; ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2011-January 2012 (ACJPS, 2012), 15; and Amnesty International, "Sudan: Further Information: Student Activist Released Without Charge," 24 February 2012.

1503 Reuters, "Sudan Police Raid Campus, Arrest Hundreds: Activists," Al Arabiya, 17 February 2012; and "Sudan's Top University Re-Opens Amid Heightened Tension," Sudan Tribune, 18 March 2012.

1504 Abdelmoneim Abu Edris Ali, "Sudan Campus Shut after Four Darfur Students 'Dead'," AFP, 8 December 2012; Khalid Abdelaziz, "Sudan Police Fire Teargas at Student Protest," Reuters, 11 December 2012; "UN Concerned over Reports of Human Rights Violations in Sudan, South Sudan," UN News Centre, 11 December 2012; Amnesty International, "Sudan Must End Violent Repression of Student Protests," 12 December 2012; and Wagdy Sawahel, "Fees, Student Deaths Spark Arab Spring-Style Protests," University World News, Issue No: 252, 13 December 2012.

1505 Abdelmoneim Abu Edris Ali, "Sudan campus shut after four Darfur students 'dead'," AFP, 8 December 2012.

1506 "Sudan Police Clash with Protesters over Student Deaths," Reuters, 10 December 2012; "Sudan: Student Protests in Khartoum Leave 60 Injured, Sources," Radio Dabanga, 11 December 2012; and Khalid Abdelaziz, "Sudan Police Teargas Protesters after Student Deaths," Reuters, 9 December 2012.

1507 Khalid Abdelaziz, "Sudan Police Fire Teargas at Student Protest," Reuters, 11 December 2012; Wagdy Sawahel, "Fees, Student Deaths Spark Arab Spring-Style Protests," University World News, Issue No: 252, 13 December 2012; and "Sudan: Darfur Student Association – 140 Students Arrested After Protests," Radio Dabanga, 13 December 2012.

1508 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor April-May 2011 (ACJPS, 2011), 8.

1509 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2011-January 2012 (ACJPS, 2012), 15.

1510 "Darfuri Students Threaten to Leave University," Radio Dabanga, 25 December 2011; and "Sudan: Darfuri Students Leave University in Protest," All Africa, 26 December 2011.

1511 US Department of State, 2009 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 11 March 2010).

1512 Ibid.

1513 Amnesty International, Agents of Fear: The National Security Service in Sudan (London, UK: Amnesty International, 2010), 44; US Department of State, 2010 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 8 April 2011), 3; and ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2009-May 2010 (ACJPS, 2010), 12.

1514 US Department of State, 2011 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – Sudan (Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 24 May 2012), 2; and Blake Evans-Pritchard, Zakia Yousif and Tajeldin Abdhalla, "Darfur Students Under Pressure in Sudan – Concerns about Unfair Targeting of Young People from Western Region," Institute for War and Peace Reporting 314, 28 February 2012.

1515 Hashim Mustafa, "8 Students Wounded in Violence at Nyala University," Radio Miraya, 17 October 2010; "12 Students Injured in Attack at Nyala University," Radio Dabanga, 17 May 2012.

1516 Ibid.

1517 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor December 2009-May 2010 (ACJPS, 2010), 3.

1518 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor October-November 2011 (ACJPS, 2011), 12.

1519 Amnesty International, "Document – Sudan: Sudanese Academic Released Without Charge: Mohamed Zain Al-Abideen," 7 March 2012.

1520 The Sudan Consortium African and International Civil Society Action for Sudan, The impact of aerial bombing attacks on civilians in Southern Kordofan, Republic of Sudan: A Briefing to the Summit of the African Union, May 2013, 2, 7-8; Nuba Reports, 10 February 2013; "Sudan Army Drops Six Bombs in South Kordofan School, Church – SPLM-N," Radio Dabanga, 11 February 2013; and "Student injured in Kauda Primary School Bombing," Nuba Reports, 17 May 2013.

1521 "Fresh government shelling kills 10 in East Jebel Marra, N. Darfur," Radio Dabanga, 11 January 2013.

1522 "Most schools still closed following North Darfur tribal violence," Radio Dabanga, 7 July 2013.

1523 "Three secondary school students killed, 25 injured in North Darfur," Radio Dabanga, 29 September 2013; and "One Student Killed, 10 Injured By Police In Malha," Sudan Radio, 30 September 2013.

1524 "Darfuri student killed, four wounded in shooting at Nyala National Service centre," Radio Dabanga, 7 July 2013.

1525 ACJPS, "Sudanese police, security forces and student militia group fire live ammunition at Darfur students; nine students sustain gun-shot wounds," 22 May 2013; and "Sudan: Darfuri Students Injured, 20 Arrested in Babanusa, Sudan," Radio Dabanga, 20 September 2013.

1526 ACJPS, Sudan Human Rights Monitor, March – April 2013 (ACJPS, 2013), 7-10; "Sudan: Sennar Security Forces Arrest Member of Darfur Students Association," Radio Dabanga, 18 September 2013; and "22nd Darfuri student arrested in Babanusa, West Kordofan," Radio Dabanga, 22 September 2013.

1527 ACJPS, "Sudanese police, security forces and student militia group fire live ammunition at Darfur students; nine students sustain gun-shot wounds," 22 May 2013.

1528 "30 Darfuri students banned from Babanusa University," Radio Tamazuj, 1 October 2013.

1529 "Sudan: Darfuri Students Injured, 20 Arrested in Babanusa, Sudan," Radio Dabanga, 20 September 2013; and "22nd Darfuri student arrested in Babanusa, West Kordofan," Radio Dabanga, 22 September 2013.

1530 "30 Darfuri students banned from Babanusa University," Radio Tamazuj, 1 October 2013.