World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Thailand

Environment

The Kingdom of Thailand is centrally located in South-East Asia, in between Laos and Cambodia to the east, Burma (Myanmar) to the west, Burma and Laos to the north, and Malaysia and the Gulf of Thailand to the south. Its climate is generally tropical. While much of the north of the country is mountainous, the centre is predominantly flat river valley.

History

The prevailing theory is that the ancestors of modern Thais came from southern China to the Chao Phraya river valley after the tenth century to establish a kingdom at Sukhothai. Ethnic Thais are relatively late arrivals in the region of what is now the 'Land of the Thais', having been preceded by numerous and still remaining minorities such as the Malay, Khmer, Mon, and various highland ethnic groups.

Displacing or absorbing already existing Mon, Khmer and Malay kingdoms in the region, the kingdoms of Sukhothai and, later, Ayutthaya gradually engaged in intermittent military struggles with neighbouring states and each other. Following the destruction of Ayutthaya by the Burmese in the eighteenth century, a unified Thai state was established in Bangkok in 1782.

Thais take great pride in the fact that they are the only South-East Asian state never to have been under colonial rule. Nonetheless, Britain and France exerted considerable political and economic pressure on the Thai government in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In 1932, a bloodless coup brought an end to the absolute monarchy and established a constitutional monarchy. Since then the country has been run by numerous governments, many of which were dominated by the military.

In 1991, another bloodless military coup toppled an elected civilian government, abolishing the constitution and national assembly. A year later, in May 1992, the middle-class combined with students to protest against continued military rule. The military fired on the protesters, creating the potential for a civil war. The King stepped in and forced the departure of the military junta. Although the King has little direct power, he is deeply revered in Thai society as the symbol of national identity and unity. The middle class revolt of 1992 led to two democratically elected governments. Since then, Thailand had rather steadily moved toward strengthening its democratic institutions, adopting in 1997 its first constitution, which contained numerous human rights provisions and was drafted by a popularly elected Constitutional Drafting Assembly. Open general elections based on this new constitution were held in 2001 and 2005, electing the government of Thaksin Shinawatra. He was deposed in September 2006 by a popular military coup, accused of corruption, abuse of power and other charges. The junta declared martial law (revoked in January 2007), suspended the constitution and dissolved Parliament and the Constitutional Court. An interim constitution is currently in place and Retired General Surayud Chulanont currently serves as Prime Minister. All political activities were suspended, and the new regime has been accused of a number of human rights violations, as well as sluggishness in prosecuting politicians and others accused of corruption.

Peoples

Main languages: Thai (official), Chinese, Malay, numerous languages with Tibeto-Burman, Mon-Khmer and Miao-Yao roots

Main religions: Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, traditional belief systems (animism)

Main minority groups: Chinese 6-7.2 million (est. 10-12%), Malay 3 million (2000 Census, 5%), Mon, Khmer and highland ethnic groups 600,000-1.2 million (2000 Census, 1-2%)

The country's population is approximately 85 per cent ethnic Thai, differentiated among central Thai (Siamese), Thai-Lao (north- eastern Thai or Thai Isaan), and the much smaller groupings of northern (highlanders) and southern Thai (Chao Pak Thai). All speak one of the Tai family of languages, though speakers can have difficulty communicating with each other. They share other cultural features, such as Theravada Buddhism. It is the central Tai language which is used by the government and taught in schools. Non-Thai minority groups who speak other Tai family languages include the Shan, Le and Phutai. Cultural differences among the groups have tended to dissipate with internal migration and the modernization of Thai society.

The two largest minorities of Thailand are the ethnic Chinese and Malay Muslims. The Chinese play a crucial role in the country's economic and urban life and are well integrated in mainstream society, often intermarrying with Thais. The Malays, for their part, have only been recently incorporated into the state of Thailand, and feel disadvantaged and excluded in many areas of public life.

Smaller mountain-dwelling ethnic groups include the Akha, Hmong, Karen, Lahu, Lisu and Mein. These minority groups struggle to survive economically and culturally in the face of development projects, landownership issues, and the influx of ethnic Thais, which contributes to the erosion of their traditional lands and livelihoods.

Governance

While retaining a strong agricultural base, the economy of the Kingdom of Thailand has expanded rapidly in recent years - particularly in the service industry - earning it the designation of a 'tiger' economy. Thailand's rapid industrialization was uneven, and industry is mostly concentrated in the region around the capital Bangkok. Rapid economic growth has caused problems such as excessive tourism and environmental degradation. In the long run, this is likely to create problems for those living in rural areas, including minorities in the south and northern sections of the country. In the 1990s there were credible reports that developers, working in tandem with local politicians, have taken land illegally from highland ethnic groups for business projects, and that land for the purposes of development in the southern part of the country was being taken over by state authorities in ways that disadvantaged the Malay minority.

New human rights institutions such as the National Human Rights Commission (which was established in 2001) were starting to build up Thailand's reputation and effectiveness in the area of human rights. The Commission, despite rather modest staffing and resources, prepared annual assessments of the human rights situation for the National Assembly, proposed policies and recommendations for improving the country's legislation, and investigated human rights abuses. The Commission also started to investigate complaints from minorities, including for example complaints from the Malay minority of beatings and abductions by Thai security forces. Its slow start in these areas came to an abrupt end when its operations were suspended after the 2006 military coup.

With a relatively combative free press and numerous non-governmental organizations (NGOs), Thailand had been among the most open societies in South-East Asia, also hosting thousands of refugees from Burma (Mon, Karen, Shan and others fleeing government repression in Burma). Nevertheless, its policies of 'integration' in the north and south, and numerous policies in relation to landownership and development have had serious detrimental effects on some minorities and could be discriminatory.

Minorities

• Chinese
• Highland ethnic groups
• Malays
• Mon and Khmer

Resources

Minority based and advocacy organisations

Akha Heritage Foundation (USA)
Email: akhalife@gmail.com
Website: www.akha.org

Asia Indigenous Peoples' Pact Foundation (Thailand)
Tel: +66 53 380 168
Email: aipp@aippfoundation.org
Website: www.aippfoundation.org

Asian Centre for Human Rights (New Delhi)
Tel: +91 11 25620583
Email: suhaschakma@achrweb.org
Website: www.achrweb.org

Asian Commission on Housing Rights
Tel: +662 538 0919
Email: achr@loxinfo.co.th
Website: www.achr.net

Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development (Forum-Asia)
Tel: +66 2391 8801
Website: www.forum-asia.org

Asian Human Rights Commission (Hong Kong)
Tel: +852 2698 6339
Website: www.ahrchk.net

Bahn Ruam Jai Project
Tel: +66 53 491 814
Email: patihaan@cm.ksc.co.th
Website: www.cm.ksc.co.th/patihaan/index.html

Centre for the Coordination of Non-Governmental Tribal Development
Tel/Fax: +66 53 292230
Email: conto@cm.ksc.co.th
Website: www.geocities.com/hmongthailand/conto

Hill Area and Community Development Foundation
Website: www.hadf.org

Hmong Association for Development in Thailand (MDT)
Telephone/Fax: +66 53 292230
Email: hmongmdt@hotmail.com
Website: www.geocities.com/hmongthailand/hmongassociat

Hmong International Human Rights Watch
Email: hihrwinfo@yahoo.com
Website: www.hmongihrw.org

Human Rights Foundation of Monland (HURFOM)
Email: mforum@np.a-net.net.th

HURIGHTS OSAKA
Tel: +816 6577 35 78
Email: webmail@hurights.or.jp
Website: www.hurights.or.jp

IMPECT (Inter Mountain Peoples Education and Culture in Thailand Association)
Tel: +66 53 398 591
Email: impect@cm.ksc.co.th

Indigenous Knowledge and Peoples
Tel/Fax: +66 53 343713
Email: secretariat@ikap-mmsea.org
Website: www.ikap-mmsea.org

International Alliance of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the Tropical Forests
Tel: +66 (0)53 328 141
Email: its@international-alliance.org
Website: www.international-alliance.org

Mon Alliance Association
Tel/Fax: +66 2 318 7474

Mon Information Service
Tel/Fax: +66 2 410 7844

Mon Unity League
Phone/Fax: +66 2 428 6232
Email: mul@anet.net.th

Pattani Malay Human Rights Organisation
Email: patanipmhro@gmail.com
Website: www.pmhro.net

Southeast Asia Resource Action Center
Tel: +1 202 667 4690
Email: searac@searac.org
Website: www.searac.org

South East Asian Mountain Peoples' for Culture and Development
Tel: +66 053276194
Email: seamptri@loxinfo.co.th
Website: www.hani-akha.org/mpcd/index

Sources and further reading

General

Aphornsuvan, T., 'The search for order: constitutions and human rights in Thai political history', paper presented at 2001 Symposium: Constitutions and Human Rights in a Global Age: An Asia Pacific perspective, URL: http://rspas.anu.edu.au/pah/human_rights/papers/2001/Thanet.pdf

Asian Human Rights Commission http://www.ahrchk.net/

Asian Human Rights Commission, 'Thailand: the human rights situation in 2006', URL: http://material.ahrchk.net/hrreport/2006/Thailand2006.pdf

Asian Legal Resource Center, 'Rule of law versus rule of lords in Thailand', Article 2, vol. 4, no. 2, April 2005, URL: http://www.article2.org/mainfile.php/0402/185/

Asian Legal Resource Centre, Institutionalised Torture, Extrajudicial Killings and Uneven Application of Law in Thailand: An alternative report to the initial report of Thailand to the Human Rights Committee, March 2005, URL: http://www.alrc.net/MSWord/ALRC_HRC_Thailand_2005.doc

Human Rights First, 'Memo to the Human Rights Committee on civil and political rights in Thailand', July 2005, URL: http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/defenders/hrd_thailand/thailand-report-0705.pdf

Human Rights First, 'Window of opportunity for human rights in Thailand', 1 November 2006, http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/defenders/hrd_thailand/alert11 0106_tanyeeno.htm

Human Rights, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Thailand: http://www.mfa.go.th/web/24.php

Jory, P., 'Multiculturism in Thailand? Cultural and regional resurgence in a diverse kingdom', Harvard Asia Pacific Review, winter 2000, URL: http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/hapr/winter00_millenium/Thailand.html

Muntarbhorn, V., 'Human rights and human development: Thailand country study', UNDP Occasional Paper 36, http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2000/papers/vitit%20muntarbhorn.thainland.doc

Pholsena, V., 'Inclusion of minorities in public life in Laos, Thailand and Vietnam' prepared for Working Group on the Rights of Minorities, 2003, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2003/WP.11, URL: http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.SUB.2.AC.5.2003.WP.11.En? Opendocument

Privacy International, 'Kingdom of Thailand', in Privacy and Human Rights 2003, URL: http://www.privacyinternational.org/survey/phr2003/countries/thailan d.htm

Chinese

Barbie, J., 'Chinese culture and demographic trends in Thailand and Malaysia', Chinese Journal of Population Science, vol. 4, no. 2, 1992, pp. 139-48.

Bun, C.K. and Kiong, T.C., 'Rethinking assimilation and ethnicity: the Chinese in Thailand', International Migration Review, vol. 27, no. 101, 1993, pp. 140-68.

Ember, M., Ember, C.R. and Skoggard, I. (eds), 'Chinese in Thailand', in Encyclopaedia of Diasporas, New York, Springer, 2005

Lauro, D., 'Chinese migration and settlement in a Thai village', International Migration, vol. 26, no. 3, 1988, pp. 301- 10.

LePoer, B.L., 'The Chinese', in Thailand: A Country Study, US Library of Congress, 1987, URL: http://countrystudies.us/thailand/48.htm

Minorities at Risk, 'Assessment for Chinese in Thailand', University of Maryland, URL: http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=80001

Pan, L., The Encyclopedia of the Chinese Overseas, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1999.

Skinner, W., Chinese Society in Thailand: An Analytical History, ACLS History E-Book Project, 1999.

Somers Heidhues, M. et al., The Chinese of South-East Asia, London, MRG, 1992.

Tan, M., 'Chinese in Thailand', 18 January 2006, URL: http://www.tsinoy.com/article_item.php?articleid=664

Tong, C.K., Bun, C.K., Kung, C.K. and Chan K.B. (eds), Alternate Identities: The Chinese in Contemporary Thailand, Asian Social Science Series, Leiden, Brill Academic Publishers, 2001.

Malay

Aphornsuvan, T., 'Origins of Malay Muslim 'separatism' in southern Thailand', Asia Research Institute, Working Paper Series No. 32, National University of Singapore, October 2004, URL: http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/wps/wps04_032.pdf

Burutpat, K., Thai-Muslims, Bangkok, Phrae Pitaya, 1976.

Che Man, W.K., Muslim Separatism: The Moros of Southern Philippines and the Malays of Southern Thailand, Singapore, Oxford University Press, 1990.

Croissant, A., 'Unrest in South Thailand: contours, causes, and consequences since 2001', Strategic Insights, vol. 4, no. 2, February 2005, URL: http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2005/Feb/croissantfeb05.asp

Forbes, A. (ed.) The Muslims of Thailand, Bihar, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1989.

International Crisis Group, 'Southern Thailand: insurgency, not jihad', Asia Report 98, 18 May 2005, URL: http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm? action=login&ref_id=3436

Islam, S.S., 'The Islamic independence movements in Patani of Thailand and Mindanao of the Philippines', Asian Survey, vol. 38, no. 5, May 1998, pp. 441-56.

May, R.J., 'The religious factor in three minority movements: the Moro of the Philippines, the Malays of Thailand, and Indonesia's West Papuans', Contemporary Southeast Asia, vol. 13, no. 4, March 1992, pp. 397-402.

Minorities at Risk, 'Assessment for Malay-Muslims in Thailand', University of Maryland, URL: http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=80002

Patani Malay Human Rights Organisation, 'The Malays of Pattani: Its Rise and Demise', URL: http://www.pmhro.net/?S=ReadPatani&ID=6

Patani News: http://www.pataninews.net/

Pitsuwan, S., Islam and Malay Nationalism: A Case Study of the Malay Muslims of Southern Thailand, Bangkok, Thai Khadi Research Institute, Thammasat University, 1985.

Zissis, C., 'The Muslim insurgency in Southern Thailand', Council of Foreign Relations, 1 February 2007, URL: http://www.cfr.org/publication/12531/muslim_insurgency_in_s outhern_thailand.html#5

Mon and Khmer

Foster, B., Commerce and Ethnic Differences: The Case of the Mons in Thailand, Athens, Ohio University Press, 1982.

Foster, B., Social Organization of four Mon and Thai Village, New Haven, CT, Human Relations Area Files Press, 1977.

Guillon, E., The Mons, A Civilization of Southeast Asia, Bangkok, The Siam Society, 1999.

Independent Mon News Agency: http://www.mrc-usa.org/

LePoer, B.L. (ed.) 'The Khmer', in Thailand: A Country Study, US Library of Congress, 1987, URL: http://countrystudies.us/thailand/45.htm

LePoer, B.L. (ed.) 'The Mon and the Khmer', in Thailand: A Country Study US Library of Congress, 1987, http://countrystudies.us/thailand/4.htm

Mon Information Home Page: http://www.albany.edu/gb661/

Pholwaddhana, N., 'Ethnic relations in Thailand the Mon-Thai relationship', PhD thesis, University of Kansas, 1986.

Raikes, D.F, A Brief History of the Mon People, Bangkok, The Siam Society, 1975.

Thianpanya, P., 'Mon language in Thailand: the endangered heritage', Assumption Commercial College, Bangkok, 2003, URL: http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Mon%20Language%20in%20Thailand.htm

Highland and ethnic groups

Asian Centre for Human Rights, Thailand: Not So Smiling to its Indigenous Hill Tribes, Shadow report on Thailand's Initial Periodic Report to the Human Rights Committee, 2005, URL: http://www.achrweb.org/Review/2005/81-05.htm

Buergin, R., ' "Hill Tribes" and forests: minority policies and resource conflicts in Thailand', Working Group, Socio-Economics of Forest Use in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Freiburg, 2000, URL: http://www.sefut.uni-freiburg.de/pdf/WP_7e.pdf

Cohen, E., Thai Tourism: Hill Tribes, Islands and Open-ended Prostitution, Bangkok, White Lotus, 1996.

Hill Tribes of Thailand: http://www.fluffy.demon.nl/asiase/seatri.htm

Human Rights Council of Australia, 'The Hill Tribes of Northern Thailand: development in conflict with human rights - report of a visit in September 1996', URL: http://www.hrca.org.au/Tribes.htm

'Introduction to Thailand's Hill Tribes', URL: http://www.1stopchiangmai.com/culture/hill_tribes/

Lee, G., 'Minority politics in Thailand: a Hmong perspective', 1987, URL: http://www.hmongnet.org/hmong-au/thaihmg.htm

Macan-Markar, M., 'Thailand: fear of expulsion haunts Hill Tribes', Asia Times, 30 July 2003, URL: http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/sover/emerg/2003 /0730thailand.htm

McKinnon, J. and Bhruksasri, W., Highlanders of Thailand, Singapore, Oxford University Press, 1986.

Minorities at Risk, 'Assessment for Northern Hill Tribes in Thailand', University of Maryland, URL: http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/inscr/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=80003

Physicians for Human Rights, 'Burmese and Hill Tribe women and girls without status in Thailand at unaddressed risk of human rights abuses and HIV/AIDS', 14 July 2004, URL: http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/library/news-2004-07-14.html

REST (Responsible Ecological Social Tours) 'Community-based tourism and indigenous peoples: challenge and opportunity', URL: http://www.rest.or.th/forum/medias/Hill_Tribes_and_Cultura l_Tourism_in_Thailand.doc

Thailand Online, 'The Hmong', URL: http://www.thailine.com/thailand/english/hill-e/hmong-e.htm

Thailand Online, 'The Karen', URL: http://www.thailine.com/thailand/english/hill-e/karen-e.htm

Thailand Online, 'The Lisu', URL: http://www.thailine.com/thailand/english/hill-e/lisu-e.htm

Thailand Online, 'The Yao', URL: http://www.thailine.com/thailand/english/hill-e/yao-e.htm

Thailex (Thai Travel Dictionary), 'Hill Tribe people and other minority groups in Thailand', URL: http://www.thailex.info/THAILEX/THAILEXENG/lexicon/Etnologie%20&%20Bergvolkeren%20Tekst.htm