World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Indonesia

Last updated: June 2008

Environment

The Republic of Indonesia is a sprawling archipelago of nearly 14,000 islands, which divides into two tiers. The main islands of the more heavily populated southern tier include Sumatra, Java, Bali and Timor. The northern tier includes Kalimantan (most of Borneo), Sulawesi, the Moluccas and Papua (the western half of New Guinea). Sumatra lies west and south of peninsular Malaysia and Singapore across the narrow Strait of Malacca. Kalimantan, the Indonesian section of Borneo, is bounded to the north by Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei. North of the Indonesian island of Sulawesi is the Celebes Sea and beyond that the Philippines. Indonesia's geographic position has made it a gateway for human migration throughout history.

History

Humans may have inhabited parts of today's Indonesia from between 2 million to 500,000 years ago, but most Indonesians today are of Austronesian stock whose ancestors may have migrated into this part of the world in waves, starting perhaps from Taiwan some 4,000 years ago, displacing in the process an already existing population of Papuan people.

The main islands of Sumatra and Java had flourishing pre-colonial empires and long-established commercial links with China and India, Asia Minor and Europe. In 1511, the Portuguese captured Malacca, which controlled the sea lanes between India and China. The Portuguese fought the Spanish and local sultanates to establish armed forts and trading factories in the archipelago. The Portuguese held on to East Timor until the Indonesian invasion of 1975 (see Timor Leste), but elsewhere, in the early seventeenth century, they were pushed aside by the Dutch, who set up a monopolistic trading company and empire based in Batavia (present-day Jakarta).

The Dutch gained control of the coastal trading enclaves throughout the archipelago and developed mining and plantation agriculture. The Dutch largely ignored the interiors of the islands and ruled through alliances with local sultans. Only in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries did the Dutch seek to unify control, greatly extending plantation agriculture, based on forced labour, and repatriating huge profits to the Netherlands.

Chinese immigration was encouraged to provide intermediaries between the colonial authorities and the indigenous peoples. The Dutch were ousted by the Japanese at the beginning of the Second World War. The Japanese installed Sukarno and Hatta, leaders of the Indonesian nationalist pro-independence movement, in nominal power. In 1945, the Indonesians proclaimed independence. However, after the defeat of Japan, the Dutch sought to re-establish their rule, forcing the Java-based nationalists to fight a four-year war of independence. The Netherlands finally recognized Indonesian independence in 1949.

Indonesia's history since independence has been tumultuous, as its leaders have attempted to deal with its ethnic diversity, sheer size, lack of internal political cohesion and impoverished peasantry. Indonesia had military and political confrontations with Malaysia and the UK over the creation of the eastern Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak and the Sultanate of Brunei on the island of Borneo, sharing the island with the Indonesian province of Kalimantan.

Indonesia confronted the Dutch over the forced incorporation of Irian Jaya (West Irian) into Indonesia and the Portuguese over East Timor (see East Timor). There have been rebellions on the provinces of West Java, Aceh Central and North Sumatra, Papua, East Timor, North Sulawesi and the Moluccas; and recurrent outbreaks of anti-Chinese violence.

To counterbalance the political strength of the army and the militant Islamic political parties in the 1950s, Sukarno, Indonesia's first President, encouraged the re-emergence and political strength of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). In 1965, left-wing military officers and some elements of the PKI attempted a coup, which was quickly suppressed by elite army units under General Suharto. The army launched a massive witch-hunt for PKI members and sympathizers, which saw the slaughter of an estimated 500,000 people, including many ethnic Chinese. Suharto was installed as President, a position he held until 1998. During his administration, the military, better known by its acronym ABRI, exercised a great deal of political power, enjoying special civic privileges and responsibilities, including unelected seats in Parliament and local legislatures, in addition to its defence and security roles.

The Asian economic crisis of 1997-8 brought Indonesia to its knees. Popular discontent with the Suharto administration led to mass protests and widespread rioting that forced Suharto to step down in May 1998. This was followed by a quick succession of changes and reforms towards a more open and democratic society, a process referred to as 'Reformasi'. East Timor voted to regain its independence after 1999, and despite violence and serious obstacles in its path was allowed to do so. Islamic fundamentalism seemed to gain strength during this period of upheavals, including an upsurge in confessional attacks in different parts of the country, and terrorist bombings in Bali and Jakarta.

There eventually followed in 2004 Indonesia's first direct presidential election, and changes which were to reduce, though not extinguish the military's political power. A series of calamitous natural disasters have struck Indonesia in recent years, but at least one of them, the 2004 tsunami, may have contributed to the 2005 settlement of the separatist conflict involving the Acehnese minority.

Peoples

Main languages: Bahasa Indonesia (official), Javanese, Sundanese, etc.

Main religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism

Main minority groups: Javanese 85.9 million (41.7%), Sundanese 31.7 million (15.4%), Malay 7 million (3.4%), Madurese 6.8 million (3.3%), Batak 6.2 million (3.0%), Minangkabau 5.6 million (2.7%), Betawi 5.2 million (2.5%), Buginese 5.2 million (2.5%), Bantenese 4.3 million (2.1%), Banjarese 3.5 million (1.7%), Balinese 3.1 million (1.5%), Sasak 2.7 million (1.3%), Makassarese 2.1 million (1.0%), Cirebon 1.9 million (0.9%), Chinese 1.9 million (0.9%), Acehnese 890,000 (0.43%), Torajan 762,000 (0.37%), etc. (Indonesia Census, 2000)

Apart from Papua, whose indigenous groups remained for the most part in isolation, the remainder of the archipelago was, over two millennia, subjected to successive waves of cultural and religious influences. The transmission and absorption of these were, however, not uniform, which has contributed to the ethnic diversity of modern Indonesia.

Even so, more than 85 per cent of Indonesians consider themselves to be Muslim, making Indonesia nominally the largest Muslim nation in the world. Indonesia is linguistically extremely diverse. West of Java, the majority language group is the Malayo-Polynesian family of more than 250 languages, usually distinguished into 16 major groups. Four of the 16 groups of the Malayo-Polynesian family are Malayan. One of the four is Riau Malayan, the primary literary language of Indonesia, which in modernized form is Bahasa Indonesia, the official language of Indonesia.

The larger islands support several ethno-linguistic groups. Central Java is the homeland of the predominant Javanese ethnic group, members of which have migrated over time to many of the other inhabited islands in the archipelago. East Java also contains substantial numbers of Balinese and Madurese from the islands of Bali and Madura, the Balinese being distinctive for having maintained a Hindu-based religion while the other Malay peoples of the archipelago adopted Islam. On the island of Bali itself, about 92 per cent of the population is Hindu. West Java also has a large Sundanese population, who are similar to the Lampung peoples of South Sumatra. Java supports more than half of Indonesia's total population.

The economically important island of Sumatra contains a number of significant ethno-linguistic groups besides Javanese. These include the strongly Islamic Acehnese of north Sumatra; Minangkabau, a Muslim group noted for its matriarchal structure and tradition of commerce and trading; and Batak, a half-dozen related tribes, many of which have become Christianized. Kalimantan is dominated by Dayak, Murut, coastal Malay peoples and ethnic Chinese.

The Moluccas are inhabited by peoples who were exposed to Islam and Christianity at around the same time, in the sixteenth century, but managed a peaceful coexistence between the two faiths at community level until the collapse of the Suharto regime in 1998, when there was brutal communal fighting. Sulawesi is inhabited mainly by Muslim Buginese and Makasarese in the south, and Christianized Minahasans and Manadonese in the north. Papua is home to some 800,000 indigenous people divided into many hundreds of groupings. The names of smaller islands, or clusters of islands, are often coterminous with the ethno-linguistic groups.

Ahmadiyah Muslims number between 200,000 and 2 million, according to media reports. In many ways the life of Ahmaddiyas conforms to Islam, although there are significant differences between orthodox Muslims and Ahmaddiyas. Orthodox Muslims claim that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmaddiya sect, proclaimed himself as a prophet, thereby rejecting a fundamental tenet of Islam - Khatem-e-Nabowat (a belief in the finality of the Prophet Mohammad). Such extremist Islamist organizations as the Islamic Defenders' Front have criticized Ahmadiyahs for heresy and launched violent attacks on them.

Governance

Since the end of the Suharto presidency in 1998, Indonesia has been moving towards a more liberal democratic system, with increased human rights provisions and mechanisms and other major political and structural changes: presidential elections in 2004 were the first where the president and vice-president were directly elected.

The constitution contains a number of human rights guarantees. There are a number of human rights institutions such as the National Human Rights Commission (KOMNASHAM), and a human rights court set up in 2000. Despite some good work in the past by KOMNASHAM, the government appears to be unable to address very serious human rights violations such as extra-judicial killings, torture and other abuses by the security forces, which often target minorities in restive provinces. Corruption - including within the judicial system - and inadequate training, resources and leadership, all combine to weaken the potential legal and constitutional protections. The human rights court's effectiveness is limited because cases involving military personnel fall instead under the jurisdiction of the Indonesian Military Court.

Recent attempts to address past breaches have encountered setbacks. The establishment of a special Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate human rights violations since the 1960s was struck down by the Constitutional Court in December 2006 as having no legal basis. The earlier conviction of a pilot for the murder of human rights defender Munir Said Thalib on board a flight to Amsterdam was overthrown by the Supreme Court in Jakarta in October 2006. The case remains unsolved.

Indonesia is not an Islamic state. The state ideology, Pancasila, requires only that citizens believe in one supreme God, and that they accept membership of one of five officially sanctioned faiths, Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism and Buddhism. Orthodox Muslim groups have argued since independence that Islam should play a greater role in government and society, with some pushing for an Islamic state based on Sharia law. Secular nationalists have countered that this risks provoking secessionist moves in regions of Indonesia where Muslims are not a majority.

The political divide between the state and orthodox believers caused riots and a wave of bombings and arson attacks in the mid- 1980s. However, Suharto successfully suppressed the more militant Islamic organizations, and co-opted the others. Under his authoritarian rule open reporting and discussion of religious and ethnic friction was banned.

Minorities

• Acehnese
• Balinese and Hindus
• Batak
• Chinese
• Dayak
• Papuans

Resources

Minority based and advocacy organisations

Acehnese

Aceh Legal Aid Foundation (LBH Banda Aceh)
Tel: +62 651 23321
Email: lbh-banda@wasantara.net.id

Aceh NGO Coalition for Human Rights
Tel: +62 651 41998
Email: info@koalisi-ham.org
Website: http://www.koalisi-ham.org

PB-HAM Aceh Timur
Tel: +62 641 21068
Email: pbham_atim2002@yahoo.co.id

Chinese

Supreme Council for Confucian Religion in Indonesia - Majelis Tinggi Agama
Tel: +62 21 6509941
Email: matakin@cbn.net.id

Dayak

Institut Dayakologi
Tel: +62 561 884567
Email: i.dayakologi@ptk.centrin.net.id

Lembaga Bela Banua Talino (LBBT - Institute for Community Legal Resources Empowerment)
Tel: +62 561 885623
Email: kayan@lbt.org
Website: http://www.lbbt.org

Lembaga Bantuan Hukum Untuk Masyarakat Adat (The Law Assisting Institution for Customary Communities of West Kalimantan)
Tel: +62 561 731043

Serikat Gerakan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Dayak
Tel: +62 561 886291
Email: segerak@pontianak.wasantara.net.id

Yayasan Madanika
Tel: +62 561 573 276
Email: madanika@plasa.com

Hindu

Hindu Human Rights
Tel: 07984 966 798
Email: hinduhumanrights@yahoo.com
Website: www.hinduhumanrights.org

Papuans

Aliansi Demokrasi untuk Papua
Tel: +62 967 587890
Email: aldepe@jayapura.wasantara.net.id

DIAHI
Tel: +62 921 326733
Email: pusatdiahi@gmail.com
Website: www.ide- diahi.or.id

Foundation for Keeping Moluccan Civil and Political Rights (FKMCPR)
Tel. +31 633 305 149
E-mail: secretariaat@fkmcpr.nl
Website: www.fkmcpr.nl

Institute for Papuan Advocacy and Human Rights
Tel: +61 418291998 (Aus)

Lepa-Lepa Maluku Foundation (LEMA)
Tel: +62 91 622 163

Papua NGO's Forum (FOKER LSM Papua)
Tel: +62 967 573 511

West Papua Action
Tel: +353 1 860 3431 (Ireland)
Email: wpaction@iol.ie
Website: www.westpapuaaction.buz.org

General

Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development (Forum-Asia)
Tel: +66 2391 8801
Website: www.forum-asia.org

Center for Human Rights Studies (PUSHAM)
Tel: +62 21 830 11 69

Center on Law and Human Rights Studies (satuHAM) (Pusat Studi Hukum dan HAM)
Email: cekli@umm.ac.id
Website: www.satuham.info

HURIGHTS OSAKA (Japan)
Tel: +816 6577 35 78
Email: webmail@hurights.or.jp
Website: http://www.hurights.or.jp/

Indigenous Peoples Alliance of the Archipelago (AMAN)
Tel: +62 21 780 2771
Email: rumahaman@cbn.net.id

Indonesia Anti-Discrimination Movement
Tel: +62 812 949 4284
Email: wisantara@yahoo.com

Indonesia Forum for Human Dignity (Netherlands)
Tel: +31 20 777 4949
Email: indonesia.house@xs4all.nl
Website: www.xs4all.nl/endi/

Indonesia Human Rights Committee (NZ)
Tel: +64 9 815 9000
Email: maire@clear.net.nz
Website: www.ihrc.revolt.org

Indonesia Human Rights Network (USA)
Tel: +1 202 544 1211
Email: kurtbiddle@earthlink.net

Indonesian Legal Studies Foundation
Tel: +62 21 4587 4046
Email: yphi05@dnet.net.id

Institute for Human Rights Study and Advocacy (ELS-HAM)
Tel: +62 967 581600
Email: elsham_irja@jayapura.wasantara.net.id
Website: www.wasantara.net.id

Institute for Irian Jaya/West Papua Indigenous People Study and Empowerment
Tel: +62 976 582681
Email: jlensru@sentani.maf.ne

Institute for Policy Research and Advocacy (ELSAM)
Tel: +62 21 829 6905
Email: elsam@nusa.or.id

Institute for the Defense of Human Rights (LPHAM)
Tel: +62 21 858 3646
Email: pham@idola.net.id

ICDHRE - Islamic Center for Democracy and Human Rights Empowerment
Tel: 0321 867283
E-mail: icdhre@telkom.net
Website: www.lsm.or.id/icdhre

PBHI - Indonesia Legal Aid and Human Rights Association
Tel: +62 21 8591 8064
Email: pbhi@cbn.net.id
Website: www.pbhi.or.id

PIJAR Indonesia (Pusat Informasi dan Jaringan Aksi Informasi)
Tel: +62 21 8519010
E-mail: pijar@pijar.net

Sawit Watch - Defending Peoples Rights
Tel: +62 251 352171
Website: www.sawitwatch.or.id

Sekretariat Anak Merdeka Indonesia
Tel: +62 274 381101

The Indonesia Human Rights Campaign (TAPOL) (UK)
Tel: +44 20 8771 2904
Email: tapol@gn.apc.org
Website: www.tapol.gn.apc.org

Watch Indonesia (Germany)
Tel: +49 30 698 179 38
Email: watchindonesia@snafu.de
Website: www.home.snafu.de/watchin

Yayasan Lembaga Hukum Indonesia (Indonesian Legal Aid Foundation)
Tel: +62 21 390 4227
Email: elawjakarta@igc.apc.org
Website: www.ylbhi.or.id

Sources and further reading

General

Afiff, S. and Lowe, C., 'Claiming indigenous community: political discourse and natural resource rights in Indonesia', Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, vol. 32, no. 1, January-March 2007, pp. 73-97.

Asian Human Rights Commission, Indonesia: Human Rights Situation in 2006, URL: http://material.ahrchk.net/hrreport/2006/Indonesia2006.pdf

Ballard, C., Human Rights and the Mining Sector in Indonesia: A Baseline Study, International Institute for Environment and Development, 2002, URL: http://www.iied.org/mmsd/mmsd_pdfs/indonesia_hr_baseline.pdf

Bertrand, J., Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Colchester, M., Juran, N., Andiko, Sirait, M., Firdaus, A.Y., Surambo, A. and Pane, H., Palm Oil and Land Acquisition in Indonesia: Implications for Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples, Perkumpulan, Sawit Watch, Forest Peoples Programme, HuMA, ICRAF, 2006.

Down to Earth, Forests Peoples and Rights in Indonesia, report, 2002, URL: http://www.rainforestfoundationuk.org/s-Forests%20Peoples%20and%20Rights%20in%20Indonesia

Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 'Strengthening human rights in Indonesia', Report on the side-event to the 61st Commission on Human Rights, 5 April 2005, URL: http://home.snafu.de/watchin/StrengtheningHumanRightsIndonesia.pdf

Hefner, R. (ed.), The Politics of Multiracialism: Pluralism and Citizenship in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 2001.

Hicks, N. and McClintock, M. (eds), Reformasi and Resistance: Human Rights Defenders and Counterterrorism in Indonesia, New York, Human Rights First, 2005.

Human Rights First, 'Human rights defenders in Indonesia', URL: http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/defenders/hrd_indonesia/hrd_indonesi a.htm

Human Rights in Indonesia, URL: http://indonesiamission-ny.org/issuebaru/HumanRight/humanrights.htm

Indonesia Human Rights Commission: http://www.komnasham.go.id/home/

Jones, S., 'Terrorism, counter-terrorism and human rights in Indonesia', Submission to the International Commission of Jurists, Jakarta, 4 December 2006, International Crisis Group, Southeast Asia Project, URL: http://ejp.icj.org/IMG/ICGSubmission.pdf

Lebar, F. (ed.), Ethnic Groups of Insular Southeast Asia, vol. 1: Indonesia, Andaman Islands, and Madagascar, New Haven, CT, Human Relations Area Files Press, 1972.

Moniaga, S., 'Emerging indigenous peoples movement in Indonesia', FOCUS Asia-Pacific News (HURIGHTS Osaka), vol. 36, 2004, URL: http://www.hurights.or.jp/asia-pacific/no_36/02.htm

Project on Extrajudicial Executions, Indonesia: Visits and Communications, Center for Human Rights and Global Justice, New York University School of Law, URL: http://www.extrajudicialexecutions.org/communications/indonesia.html< /p>

Ramage, D., Politics in Indonesia: Democracy, Islam, and the Ideology of Tolerance, London, Routledge, 1995.

Sellato, B., Nomads of the Borneo Rainforest: The Economics, Politics, and Ideology of Settling Down, Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1994.

Sidel, T., Indonesia: Minorities, Migrants and the New Citizenship Law, Writenet Report, March 2007, URL: http://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/461b52df4.pdf

Simons, G., Indonesia: The Long Oppression, London, Macmillan, 2000.

Suryadinata, L., Pribumi Indonesians, the Chinese Minority and China, Singapore, Heinemann Asia, 1992.

Suter, K., East Timor and West Irian, London, MRG, 1982.
Watch Indonesia: http://home.snafu.de/watchin/Index-engl.htm

Acehnese

'Aceh: ecological war zone', Down to Earth, no. 47, November 2000, URL: http://dte.gn.apc.org/47Ach.htm

Aceh Eye: http://www.acheh-eye.org/index.asp

Aceh.Net, 'The Acehnese', URL: http://www.aceh.net/theacehnese.html

Acehnese: http://www.everyculture.com/East-Southeast- Asia/Acehnese.html

Aguswandi, 'Acehnese, Islam and foreigners: clearing up the misapprehension', TAPOL, 13 April 2005, URL: http://tapol.gn.apc.org/news/files/st050413.htm

Brown, G., 'Horizontal inequalities, ethnic separatism and violent conflict: the case of Aceh', UNDP Human Development Report Office, Occasional Paper 2005/28, URL: http://hdr.undp.org/docs/publications/background_pape rs/2005/HDR2005_Brown_Graham_28.pdf

Desgranges, A., 'Aceh: conflict and reconciliation', Cultural Survival Quarterly, vol. 24, no. 3, 31 October 2000, URL: http://www.cs.org/publications/csq/csq-article.cfm?id=1026
'ExxonMobile: human rights abuses in Aceh, Indonesia', URL: http://www.laborrights.org/projects/corporate/exxon/

Human Rights First, 'Civil society and human rights in Aceh after the tsunami', 10 February 2005, URL: http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/defenders/pdf/aceh-briefing- 021005.pdf

Human Rights Watch, Indonesia: The War in Aceh, 2001, URL: http://www.hrw.org/asia/indonesia.php

International Crisis Group, 'Aceh: can autonomy stem the conflict?', Asia Report No. 18, International Crisis Group, 2001.

Kell, T., The Roots of Acehnese Rebellion, 1989-1992, Ithaca, NY, Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, 1995.

McCulloch, L., Aceh: Then and Now, London, MRG, 2005.

MRG, 'Human rights of minorities and civilians under threat in Aceh', London, MRG, May 2003, URL: http://www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/2003/mrgi-ind-20may.pdf

Ross, M., 'Resources and rebellion in Aceh, Indonesia', in P. Collier and M. Sambanis (eds) Understanding Civil War, vol. 2: Europe, Central Asia and Other Regions, Washington, DC, World Bank, 2003, URL: http://www.polisci.ucla.edu/faculty/ross/ResourcesRebellion.pdf

Schulze, K., The Free Aceh Movement (GAM): Anatomy of a Separatist Organization, Washington, DC, East-West Center, 2004, URL: http://www.eastwestcenterwashington.org/Publications/psseriespdf2.htm

Chinese

BBC News, 'Chinese diaspora: Indonesia', 3 March 2005, URL: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4312805.stm

Buskirk, D., 'Strangers in a strange land: the Chinese of Java', Asian Profile, December 1979, pp. 547-58.

Chin Ung Ho, The Chinese of Southeast Asia, London, MRG, 2000.

Coppel, C., 'China and the ethnic Chinese', in Indonesia: Australian Perspectives, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1980, vol. 3, pp. 729-34.

Coppel, C., 'Values and the study of the Indonesian Chinese', Review of Indonesian and Malayan Affairs, July-December 1976, pp. 77-84.

Coppel, C., Indonesian Chinese in Crisis, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1983.

Fuller, T., 'A golden age of Indonesian Chinese', International Herald Tribune, 13 December 2006, UTL: http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/12/13/news/chinese.php

Go Gien Tjwan, 'Chinese in Indonesia: past and present, Kabar Seberang', Sulating Maphilindo, no. 13-14, 1984, pp. 137-56.

Hock Tong Cheu (ed.), Chinese Beliefs and Practices in Southeast Asia: Studies on the Chinese Religion in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, Selangor Darul Eshsan, Malaysia, Pelanduk Publications, 1993.

Indonesia Matters, 'Jakarta Chinese', 20 February 2007, URL: http://www.indonesiamatters.com/1100/jakarta-chinese/

Indonesian Legal Studies Foundation, 'Discrimination against ethnic Chinese in Indonesia', HURIGHTS OSAKA, FOCUS, Asia-Pacific News, vol. 43, March 2006, URL: http://www.hurights.or.jp/asia- pacific/043/02.html

Jacobsen, M., 'Reconceptualising the ethnic Chinese diaspora', in Southeast Asia: Exploring the Outer Limits of Ethnic Affiliations, Southeast Asia Research Centre, Working Paper No. 41, April 2003, URL: http://www.cityu.edu.hk/searc/WP41_03_Jacobsen.pdf

Somers Heidhues, M. et al., The Chinese of South-East Asia, London, MRG, 1992.
Suryadinata, L., Pribumi Indonesians, the Chinese minority and China, Singapore, Heinemann Asia, 1992.

Winarta, F.H., 'Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia: would it be better?', paper for the International Symposium 'Constitutions and Human Rights in a Global Age: An Asian Pacific Perspective', 1-3 December 2001, Australian National University, URL: http://rspas.anu.edu.au/pah/human_rights/papers/2001/Winarta.rtf

Winarta, F.H., 'Racial discrimination in the Indonesian legal system: ethnic Chinese and nation-building', in L. Suryadinata (ed.), Ethnic Relations and Nation-building in Southeast Asia: The Case of the Ethnic Chinese, Singapore, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies/Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 2004.

Dayak

Alcorn, J.B. and Royo, A.G., Indigenous Social Movements and Ecological Resilience: Lessons from the Dayak of Indonesia, Washington, DC, Biodiversity Support Program, 2000, URL: http://www.frameweb.org/ev.php?ID=12502_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC

Bamba, J., 'Kalimantan: unity or diversity?', in A. Heijmans, N. Simmonds and H. van de Veen (eds), Searching for Peace in Asia Pacific: An Overview of Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities, Boulder, CO, Rienner, 2004.

CIBOD Foundation, 'Conflict in Kalimantan: traditions and interventionism', February 2002, URL: http://crisiswatch.barcelona2004.org/observatorio/mostrarDossier_i.htm?num_dossier=336

Dayakology: http://dayakology.gn.apc.org

Eghenter, C., 'Indonesia: the Dayak people in the first co-managed protected area', World Rainforests Movement Bulletin, no. 73, August 2003, URL: http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/73/Indonesia.html

Hoffman, C., The Punan: Hunters and Gatherers of Borneo, Ann Arbor, MI, UMI Research Press, 1986.

HPCR (Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research) 'Kalimantan', web portal, URL: http://www.preventconflict.org/portal/main/maps_kalimantan_resources. php

'Indigenous rights in West Kalimantan', Down to Earth, no. 58, August 2003, URL: http://dte.gn.apc.org/58kal.htm

International Crisis Group, Communal Violence in Indonesia: Lessons from Kalimantan, Asia Report No. 19, 27 June 2001, URL: http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm? action=login&ref_id=1455

Kalbar, W. and Down to Earth, Manis Mata Dispute: The Dispute between the Indigenous Community and PT Harapan Kelapa Sawit Lestari Oil Palm Plantation, Manis Mata, Ketapang District, West Kalimantan, Down to Earth, 2000, URL: http://dte.gn.apc.org/ccdc2.htm

King, V., The Maloh of West Kalimantan: An Ethnographic Study of Social Inequality and Social Change among an Indonesian Borneo People, Dordrecht, Foris Publications, 1985.

King, V., The Peoples of Borneo, Oxford, Blackwell, 1993.

Linder, D. 'Ethnic conflict in Kalimantan', ICE Case Studies no. 11, URL: http://www.american.edu/TED/ice/kaliman.htm

Maunati, Y., Sharing the Fruit of Forestry Products: Indigenous People and their Incomes in the Forestry Sector in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, Discussion Paper No. 24, Asia Development Bank Institute, 2005, URL: http://www.adbi.org/files/2005.02.dp24.forestry.sector.indonesia.pdf< /p>

Ministry of Marine Affairs, Indigenous Peoples Development Framework: Sustainable Aquaculture Development for Food Security and Poverty Reduction Project, Asia Development Bank, October 2005, URL: http://www.adb.org/Documents/IndigenousPeoples/INO/35183-INO-IPDF.pdf

Whittier, H., The Kenyah, in Essays on Borneo Societies, Hull Monographs on South-East Asia no. 7, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1978.

Yamin, K., 'Villagers, troops square off over mine dispute', Inter Press Agency News Service, 23 February 2004, URL: http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=22522

Batak

Association of Batak Tribes - Europe: www.bonapasogit.eu/Pagina %27s/Engels/Engels.htm

Batak People of North Sumatra: http://sitogol.tripod.com

Brown, G., 'Horizontal inequalities, ethnic separatism and violent conflict: the case of Aceh', UNDP Human Development Report Office, Occasional Paper 2005/28, URL: http://hdr.undp.org/docs/publications/background_pape rs/2005/HDR2005_Brown_Graham_28.pdf

Carle, R., Cultures and Societies of North Sumatra, Berlin, Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1986.

Hasselgren, J., Rural Batak, Kings in Medan: The Development of Toba Batak Ethno-religious Identity in Medan, Indonesia, 1912- 1965, Uppsala University, 2000.

HRW, Without Remedy: Human Rights Abuse and Indonesia's Pulp and Paper Industry, Human Rights Watch, vol. 15, no. 1 (C), January 2003, URL: http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/indon0103/Indon0103.pdf

Mujiburrahman, 'Religious conversion in Indonesia: the Karo Batak and the Tengger Javanese', Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, vol. 12, no. 1, January 2001, pp. 23-38.

Peoples of Sumatra: http://www.country- studies.com/indonesia/peoples-of-sumatra.html

Rae, S., Breath Becomes the Wind: Old and New in Karo Religion, Dunedin, Otago University Press, 1996.

Sibeth, A., The Batak: Peoples of the Island of Sumatra, London, Thames & Hudson, 1991.

The Batak: http://indahnesia.com/indonesia.php?page=POPBAT

The Karo Batak: http://www.peoplesoftheworld.org/text? people=Karo%20Batak

Balinese and Hindu

AsiaSentinel, 'Bali: trouble in paradise', 29 August 2006, URL: http://asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=115&Itemid=34
Balinese: www.lowlands- l.net/anniversary/bali-info.php">www.lowlands-l.net/anniversary/bali-info.php">http://asiasentinel.com/index.php? option=com_content&task=view&id=115&Itemid=34
Balinese: www.lowlands-l.net/anniversary/bali-info.php

Cederroth, S., The Spell of the Ancestors and the Power of Mekkah, Gothenburg Studies in Social Anthropology No. 3, 1981.

Gerdin, I., The Unknown Balinese, Gothenburg Studies in Social Anthropology No. 4, 1982.

Hindu Resources and Community in Indonesia: www.agnihoma.org

Howe, L., Hinduism and Hierarchy in Bali, Santa Fe, NM, School of American Research, 2001.

International Crisis Group, The Perils of Private Security in Indonesia: Guards and Militias on Bali and Lombok, Asia Report No. 67, 7 November 2003, URL: www.indonesia- house.org/focus/terror/2003/11/ICG_security_in_indonesia.pdf

Pringle, R., Short History of Bali, A: Indonesia's Hindu Realm, London, Allen & Unwin, 2004.

Ramstedt, M., Hinduism in Modern Indonesia: A Minority Religion between Local, National, and Global Interests, London, RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.

The Age, 'After the blast, Balinese brace for more bloodshed', 17 October 2002, URL: www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/10/16/1034561211218.html

Warren, C., Adat and Dinas: Balinese Communities in the Indonesian State, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993.

Papuans

Brundige, E., King, W., Vahali, P., Vladek, S. and Xiang Yuan, Indonesian Human Rights Abuses in West Papua: Application of the Law of Genocide to the History of Indonesian Control, Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic, Yale Law School, April 2004, URL: www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/westpapuahrights.pdf

Chauvel, R., Constructing Papuan Nationalism: History, Ethnicity, and Adaptation, Washington, DC, East-West Center, URL: http://www.eastwestcenterwashington.org/Publications/psseriespdf14.htm< /a>

ELSHAM, Institute for Human Rights Study and Advocacy, 'Statement under the auspices of the UN Working Group on Minorities: the West Papuan case', May 2003, URL; www.unhchr.ch/minorities/statements/westpapua.doc

Franciscans International, 'Human rights situation in Papua, Indonesia, Commission on Human Rights (62nd Session) 2006', 20 February 2006, URL: www.franciscansinternational.org/docs/statement.php? id=419

HAM Papua: A Human Rights Resource for West Papua: www.hampapua.org/home2.html

Heider, K., Grand Valley Dani: Peaceful Warriors, Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology, New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1996.

Heider, K., The Dugum Dani: A Papuan Culture in the Highlands of West New Guinea, Chicago, Aldine Publishing, 1970.

HPCR (Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research), 'West Papua/Irian Jaya', web portal, URL: www.preventconflict.org/portal/main/maps_wpapua_resources.php

Human Rights Cases in West Papua: www.westpapua.net/cases/hr/index.htm

Human Rights Features, 'West Papua - swept under batik carpet?', South Asia Human Rights Documentation Centre, 31 August 2006, URL: www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF148.htm

Indonesia Matters, 'Papua', URL: www.indonesiamatters.com/category/indonesia/papua

Institute for Human Rights Studies and Advocacy, ELSHAM Papua News: www.geocities.com/elshamnewsservice

International Crisis Group, 'Indonesia: resources and conflict in Papua', 2002, URL: http://fandom.net/InfoKit/Src/PapuaCrisis.pdf

King, P., West Papua Since Suharto: Independence, Autonomy, or Chaos?, Sydney, University of New South Wales Press, 2004.

McGibbon, R., Plural Society in Peril: Migration, Economic Change, and the Papua Conflict, Washington, DC, East-West Center, 2004, URL: www.eastwestcenterwashington.org/Publications/psseriespdf13.htm

'Observations on human rights conditions in the PT Freeport Indonesia contract of work areas with recommendations', Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Center for Human Rights, July 2002, URL: www.mpi.org.au/campaigns/rights/human_rights_abuse_freeport_indo</ p>

Osborne, R., Indonesia's Secret War: The Guerrilla Struggle in Irian Jaya, Sydney, Allen and Unwin, 1985.

Suter, K., East Timor and West Irian, London, MRG, 1982.
WestPAN, 'Cultural diversity in West Papua', January 2005, URL: www.westpapua.ca/?q=node/122

WestPAN, 'Five years of special autonomy have brought no improvements: the human rights situation has gotten worse, elsham papua barat 2006 year end report', December 2006, URL: www.westpapua.ca/?q=en/node/459