Sri Lanka: Ability of single Tamil women to relocate and access housing and employment in Colombo; whether and how they can be traced by the government or paramilitaries (2014-March 2015)

Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Ottawa

1. Prevalence of Single Women Living in Colombo

In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a senior lecturer in development geography at the University of Edinburgh, who has conducted and published research on women-headed households in Eastern Sri Lanka and their socio-economic insecurities across ethnic groups, indicated that the presence of single women living in Colombo is "an increasing phenomenon" but is still "not common" (16 Mar. 2015). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a professor of political science at Nebraska Wesleyan University, who specializes in South Asian and Sri Lankan politics, stated that it is "still very rare for a single woman to live alone in Sri Lanka," and that it is "even rarer among Tamil women" (10 Mar. 2015). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, an assistant professor of cultural anthropology at Santa Clara University in California, who has conducted research on the experiences of Tamil women workers and their families in and beyond Sri Lanka, explained that according to her research experience, "it is common for single Tamil women to relocate to Colombo for income generation" (7 Apr. 2015) due to "economic necessity so that they can care for their kin who live outside Colombo" (Assistant Professor 16 Mar. 2015). The same source explained that relocating to Colombo "bring[s] higher remittances" to women's families, but that relocating to and resettling in Colombo is a "precarious and risky process and experience for Tamil single women" (ibid.). The source explained that there is a "lack of choice" over their living situation, as many women rent single rooms with an unknown/informal landlord in Colombo and the room they live in is split with one or more other women unknown to them, and who are subject to change (ibid. 7 Apr. 2015).

2. Family Support and Societal Attitudes

The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)'s 2012 Eligibility Guidelines for Assessing the International Protection Needs of Asylum Seekers from Sri Lanka indicate that if a Tamil person from the former conflict-affected areas were to relocate to a non-conflict-affected area such as Colombo, "in particular if he or she were not to have family connections or a support network in the proposed area of relocation, could ... raise suspicions in the local community and potentially constitute major obstacles to relocation" (UN 21 Dec. 2012, 39). Sources similarly report that single Tamil women will encounter difficulties relocating to a new city if they do not have a family support system available there (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015; Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015; Senior Lecturer 16 Mar. 2015).

According to the Professor of political science, women (both Tamil and non-Tamil) living alone in Colombo are perceived as being "promiscuous or of low moral values" (Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015). Other academic sources similarly state that single women in Colombo encounter negative assumptions about their character (Professor of social science 23 Feb. 2015; Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015), especially for Tamil women who do not speak Sinhalese or English, who are seen as untrustworthy (Professor of social science 23 Feb. 2015).

In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a professor in the Departments of Social Science and Geography at York University [1] who has conducted research on the "dynamics of human displacement and responses to it inside Sri Lanka since 1998" stated that relocation to Colombo or "anywhere else in the country, is not realistically available to Tamil women who come from rural areas and lower/middle class backgrounds" (Professor of social science 23 Feb. 2015). The Assistant Professor explained that there are "gendered norms and cultural beliefs that stigmatize women from living alone in Sri Lanka and Colombo" stating that, based on her research, "life in Colombo for Tamil single women is precarious due to economic, social, political, and gendered structural forms of inequality and risk" (16 Mar. 2015). According to the Senior Lecturer, "the most vulnerable and low-income groups [of women-headed households] are unlikely to have the material base to relocate to Colombo easily (16 Mar. 2015).

In a telephone interview with the Research Directorate, a socio-cultural anthropologist, whose research is focused on social movements, displacement, and the impacts of the Sri Lankan conflict on displaced and disappeared women and children [2], explained that "when relocating, a woman's background would be thoroughly examined by her community, potential employers, neighbours, and family" (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015). The source also expressed the view that "it is difficult to find anonymity even within Colombo" (ibid.). However, in a telephone interview with the Research Directorate, a visiting professor of Asian studies at Temple University, whose research is focused on ethnic politics in Sri Lanka, stated that "there is a better chance of some anonymity" in Colombo since the end of the war, as now there are fewer security checks (9 Mar. 2015).

2.1 Sexual Harassment and Assault

The US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2013 indicates that sexual harassment of women in Sri Lanka is "widespread" but not commonly discussed and that sexual assault, rape, and spousal abuse were "pervasive societal problems" (US 27 Feb. 2014, 45-46). According to the Professor of political science, there has been "an epidemic of sexual assault" in recent years in Sri Lanka, and expressed the opinion that a single woman living alone would be vulnerable to sexual assault if she was not wealthy enough to afford security (Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015). Similarly, the senior lecturer indicated that single women, including Tamil women, can be subject to various forms of sexual harassment, and "can be seen as easy targets" particularly when they have weak or non-existent support networks of kin, extended family or friends (Senior Lecturer 16 Mar. 2015). The Professor of social science similarly indicated that for women without family in Colombo, "the city would be no more protective of a young, single/divorced Tamil woman's safety and reputation than another part of the country" and that "in fact, it could be worse unless family or friends can support her" (Professor of social science 23 Feb. 2015).

The socio-cultural anthropologist indicated that widows and single mothers are particularly "vulnerable to being pressured to exchange [sexual] favours for support" (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015). Country Reports 2013 indicates that there have been increased reports of the prevalence of "'survival sex'" by vulnerable women engaging in sexual acts "for monetary and other kinds of support or compensation," particularly with security forces personnel (US 27 Feb. 2014, 46).

3. Access to Housing

The Professor of political science indicated that for women relocating to Colombo, "safe and affordable housing is difficult to find" and that most opt to live with relatives (10 Mar. 2015). The Assistant Professor also explained that for Tamil women that relocate to Colombo, "housing is often procured without formal lease/rental agreements but rather through informal social ... or kin-based networks" (Assistant Professor 16 Mar. 2015). The Senior Lecturer explained that "a Tamil woman head [of household]'s ability to relocate to Colombo is likely to be shaped by the degree to which she has access to personal or extended familial resources" and that her socio-economic class "would be a key factor" that determines her ability to access housing, employment, and personal security while in Colombo (Senior Lecturer 16 Mar. 2015). According to the Professor of political science, for single Tamil women, "there are few available apartments or houses unless the woman is very wealthy" (10 Mar. 2015).

According to a June 2014 country fact sheet on Sri Lanka prepared by the International Organization for Migration (IOM), Colombo is described as having a "mixed ethnic composition" (IOM June 2014, 16).

Sources report that people of Tamil ethnicity live in the following areas of Colombo:

Colombo 13 [Kotahena] (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015; Visiting Professor 9 Mar. 2015);

Colombo 6 [Wellawatta, Wellawatte] (ibid.; Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015);

Wattala (ibid.);

The socio-cultural anthropologist indicated that these "Tamil enclaves" are the areas of Colombo where a Tamil person would be more likely to have a relative, and that "any woman would need to have a linkage to family there" in order to move to Colombo (9 Mar. 2015). The Professor of political science indicated that Tamils are limited to living in Tamil neighbourhoods (Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the IOM, high-rise apartments are available in the greater Colombo area and some principal towns away from the Colombo district "for outright purchase and for modest rents" (IOM June 2014, 7). According to the Visiting Professor, average rental costs for a small studio apartment in Colombo could cost anywhere from approximately 5,000 to 8,000 Sri Lankan rupees (LKR) per month [about C$47 to C$76] to 15,000 LKR per month depending on the location and quality of the apartment (9 Mar. 2015). According to the IOM, high-rise apartments tend to have higher rents (IOM June 2014, 7).

According to the socio-cultural anthropologist, landlords do not like to rent to single men or women of any ethnicity, as the assumption is that the person will become a source of problems and ruin the reputation of the landlord (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015). The same source added that this treatment is "worse for women than it is for men" and that the "assumption will be that a single woman is a person of disrepute" (ibid.).

The socio-cultural anthropologist explained that single Tamil women relocating to Colombo could also end up living in a factory hostel or boarding house in conjunction with working in a factory; however, the living conditions for such women are described by the source as "deplorable" (ibid.). Based on her research and visits to these living spaces, the Assistant Professor described the living conditions for single Tamil women and widows living in Colombo as "basic at best," with a lack of personal space, security, and formal rental agreements, and having shared basic kitchen and bathroom services (Assistant Professor 16 Mar. 2015). She explained that "many upper class and elite homeowners in Colombo will rent out the unsecured top floors of their houses to multiple single (young women and widows) women who are working in informal employment sectors in Colombo" (ibid.).

4. Access to Employment

Country Reports 2013 indicates that "the law prohibits discrimination based on race, gender, disability, language, or social status, and the government generally respected these rights in practice," but that there were incidents of gender and ethnic-based discrimination (US 27 Feb. 2014, 45). The same source indicates that both local and Indian-origin Tamils "maintained that they suffered longstanding, systematic discrimination" in university education and government employment (ibid., 50). According to a 2013 report on employment in Sri Lanka by the International Labour Organization (ILO), a "large majority (over 90 percent)" of public sector employees in Sri Lanka are Sinhalese (UN 2013, 9). The same report says that Tamils, particularly Indian Tamils, are "highly concentrated in plantation agriculture, indicating an ethnic divide in the patterns of employment and occupations" (ibid., 11). The ILO reports that Sri Lankan women are "more crowded into lower paying employment" and agriculture, although "minorities of more highly educated women are making inroads into professional occupations" (ibid.). According to Country Reports 2013, in Sri Lanka, women lack legal protection against discrimination in the private sector, are sometimes paid less than men for equal work, and "the demand for female labour was mainly for casual and low-paid, low-skilled jobs" (US 27 Feb. 2014, 47). The Assistant Professor explained that in urban settings "widows and young unmarried women often work in semi-skilled to low-skilled occupations such as domestic workers, garment factory workers, shop workers, students, and administrative/clerical work" (16 Mar. 2015). The Professor of political science expressed the opinion that for single Tamil women in Colombo, "employment is nearly impossible unless the woman has a unique skill such as being a doctor, nurse, or engineer" (10 Mar. 2015). According to the socio-cultural anthropologist, employment for a single Tamil woman in Colombo depends on her skills and her support network, noting

she will not be able to just travel to Colombo by herself and get a rental [housing] or a job. If people don't have relatives in Colombo they might trust an agent to set their daughter up with a job in cases of dire poverty or difficult security situations, but this is very, very rare (Socio-cultural anthropologist 22 Mar. 2015).

The Professor of political science indicated that there is a shortage of jobs for all ethnic groups and genders, however, he expressed the view that "most companies owned by Sinhalese and Muslims will not hire Tamils," leaving Tamil businesses as the "only ones likely to hire a single [Tamil] woman" (Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015). According to the Visiting Professor, "there is not discrimination purely on the basis of Tamil ethnicity, as there is high unemployment everywhere in Colombo" (Visiting Professor 9 Mar. 2015).

The Visiting Professor indicated that he was aware of cases of discrimination on the basis of someone's history related to the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ealam (LTTE) (ibid.). The Visiting Professor explained that "if a single woman had any role within the LTTE, if an employer knew she had a troubled past she would have trouble finding employment, but this is not state policy and the government is not ordering people not to hire people with an LTTE past. This discriminatory situation would likely be dependent on the employer" (Visiting Professor 9 Mar. 2015). The socio-cultural anthropologist similarly indicated that people do not like to rent or employ people with LTTE connections in their background (22 Mar. 2015). According to Country Reports 2013, former combatants released from rehabilitation face social stigma and difficulty finding employment (US 27 Feb. 2014, 12).

5. Access to Health Services and Social Assistance

Sources indicate that the government provides free healthcare to the public at government hospitals in Sri Lanka (Tilakaratna May 2014, 4; IOM June 2014, 6). Sources describe the public health services in Sri Lanka as "congested" (ibid.), or inadequate (Tilakaratna May 2014, 4).

According to sources, Sri Lankans can apply for social assistance through the Samurdhi social assistance program (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015; IOM June 2014, 13) if their family's monthly income falls below 1,500 LKR (ibid.). According to the IOM, Samurdhi social assistance includes schemes for "destitute, disabled and elderly persons, widows and those who do not have a regular monthly income," as well as food stamps, kerosene subsidies, food rations, and financial assistance, among other supports (ibid.). According to a 2014 report on social protections in Sri Lanka by Dr. Ganga Tilakaratna, a Research Fellow and the Head of the Poverty and Social Welfare Policy Unit at the Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka (IPS) [3], a person in Sri Lanka requires approximately 3,700 LKR to cover "minimum consumption expenditure" (Tilakaratna May 2014, 6).

The Tilakaratna report indicates that the maximum amount a family can receive from social assistance each month is between 750 LKR (for families with 1-2 family members) and 1,500 LKR (for families of 6 or more members) (Tilakaratna May 2014, 3). The same source found that 1.5 million families in Sri Lanka are currently receiving the Samurdhi subsidy (ibid.). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

Social protection programmes are described by Tilakaratna as having "limited coverage" and an "inadequacy of benefits" due to budgetary constraints (ibid., 6). The Senior Lecturer indicated that "there are no formal systems of support for women-headed households [of any ethnicity], unless they fall within a poverty level threshold, in which case they become entitled to a modest (meagre even) welfare payment" (Senior Lecturer 16 Mar. 2015). The socio-cultural anthropologist explained that entry into the Samurdhi system is difficult, due to the bureaucratic process involved, as well as corruption (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015). The same source expressed the view that single women, especially widows, are vulnerable to being asked for "[sexual] favours in exchange for assistance with the process," (ibid.). She added that another route to accessing social benefits would be obtaining political patronage or a letter of support from a local politician, something that, in her view, single Tamil women would not likely be in a position to do (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015). Similarly, the Visiting Professor explained that, in his opinion, social assistance is

not easy to obtain in practice, particularly if a you are coming from outside and settling in Colombo. Samurdhi ... is in theory open to all Sri Lankans, but you need to have political influence or connections in order to access these benefits, even if you are originally from the region (9 Mar. 2015).

6. Language

The 2014 Bertelsmann Stiftung Transformation Index (BTI), which assesses the transformation toward democracy and a market economy and the quality of political management in 129 countries (Bertelsmann Stiftung 2014, 1), indicates that in Sri Lanka, public officials "often continue to demand that those who seek government services do so in Sinhala (the majority community's language) and not Tamil" (ibid., 19). Similarly, according to sources, to interact with government officials, police, and to obtain employment, it is necessary to speak Sinhala (Professor of social science 23 Feb. 2015; Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015) as government officials are "primarily Sinhala speaking" (ibid.). The socio-cultural anthropologist expressed the view that Tamils that only speak Tamil "may be able to get by somewhat within a Tamil enclave; however, navigating resettlement in the city would be extremely difficult" (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015). According to the Visiting Professor, a person needs to be able to speak all three languages used in Colombo (Sinhala, Tamil, and English), in order "to obtain good employment" (9 Mar. 2015).

7. Capacity of Authorities and Paramilitary Groups to Track a Single Tamil Woman

7.1 Registration

According to the 2012 UNHCR guidelines, registration with the Grama Niladari [a Sri Lankan public official appointed by the central government to carry out administrative duties in a sub-unit of a divisional secretariat] of one's place of residence "is required of anyone, in any part of the country, in order to be recognized as a resident of the area and to be entered into the electoral list for that area" (UN 21 Dec. 2012, 39). Similarly, the socio-cultural anthropologist indicated that a person who relocates would need to register with the Grama Niladari, and potentially with the police if her landlord or employer requires it (22 Mar. 2015). According to the Professor of political science, "tracking anyone in Sri Lanka is facilitated by the Grama Sevakas. They are local level government representatives who record births, deaths, marriages and other activities in their community" (Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015).

The socio-cultural anthropologist indicated that when a person moves to Colombo, their landlord is supposed to take a copy of the person's identity card to the police to have them registered (Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015). The same source explained that "landlords don't always respect this rule" (ibid.). Similarly, the Professor of political science indicated that Tamils are required to register with police when they move to a new community, but since the January 2015 elections, "this law has not been enforced, but it remains on the books" (Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015). According to the Assistant Professor, to the best of her knowledge, persons that relocate to Colombo are required to register with the police at the police station; however, "oftentimes, Tamil single women living in informal living arrangements are advised not to register with the police or other authorities out of the homeowner's fear of violating rental laws or assuming legal responsibility for any known tenants" (Assistant Professor 16 Mar. 2015).

7.2 Security Checkpoints

Several sources indicate that the number of security checkpoints in Colombo has been reduced (US 19 Apr. 2013, 25; Norway 7 Dec. 2012, 8; UN 21 Dec. 2012, 39) since the armed conflict ended [in May 2008 (Norway 7 Dec. 2012, 8)] (ibid.). According to a 2013 report on the security and human rights situation in Sri Lanka produced by Landinfo, Norway's Country of Origin Information Centre, "surveillance, security arrangements and the risk of arrests no longer dominate the lives of the Tamil population in Colombo and the south" (Norway 7 Dec. 2012, 6). In correspondence with the Research Directorate in March 2015, two sources stated that there are no longer any checkpoints in Colombo (Visiting Professor 9 Mar. 2015; Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015). The socio-cultural anthropologist explained that "there is freedom to move around the city ... however, the authorities are still consciously observant of those they deem suspicious" (ibid.).

Two sources indicated that a person can be stopped and asked for identification at any time (Professor of social science 23 Feb. 2015; Socio-cultural anthropologist 9 Mar. 2015), or needs to be shown when entering government buildings, or to open a bank account (ibid. 22 Mar. 2015). The Professor at York University stated that Sri Lankans are required to carry identity cards (Professor of social science 23 Feb. 2015). However, the visiting professor stated that Sri Lankans still carry their identity card out of habit, but are not required to do so (16 Mar. 2015). According to the socio-cultural anthropologist, although it is not "legally mandated," a person can be detained if they are unable to show a national identity card of passport at a checkpoint (5 Apr. 2015).

According to the Professor of social science, national identity cards indicate the holder's ethnicity and place of birth (Professor of social science 23 Feb. 2015). She explained that it "rais[es] suspicion" when a person is Tamil and born outside of Colombo (ibid.). According to the Professor of political science, every Sri Lankan has a national identity card which indicates who the person is and where they originate; he added that any time that a woman showed her identity card, "she would make herself available for tracking" (Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015).

7.3 Paramilitary Groups

Country Reports 2013 indicates that since the end of the war, pro-government paramilitary groups "increasingly took on the characteristics of criminal gangs as they sought to solidify their territory and revenue sources" (US 27 Feb. 2014, 5). Sources report that paramilitary groups such as the Eelam People's Democratic Party (EPDP) maintain close ties with government forces (ibid. 5; Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015) and information held by these groups "would be potentially available to the police" (ibid.). Two sources indicate that paramilitary groups are less active in Colombo since the end of the war (Socio-cultural anthropologist 22 Mar. 2015; Visiting Professor 9 Mar. 2015). According to the Visiting Professor, there are still individuals from these groups in Colombo, but most groups were dismantled after the end of the war (ibid.). The socio-cultural anthropologist indicated that paramilitaries are "much less active" but that "there is still surveillance in primarily Tamil neighbourhoods" (22 Mar. 2015).

The Professor of political science indicated that there are Tamil militias in Colombo, including the EPDP, which monitor and extort Tamil citizens, and "regularly interrogate anyone who is new to a community or who has relatives who are missing" (Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015). The socio-cultural anthropologist indicated that men "on the pretext of [being] plain clothes policemen" will stop people in the street, visit their homes, or question them, "if they can't figure out who you are by questioning neighbours, shopkeepers, etc." (Socio-cultural anthropologist 22 Mar. 2015). The same source stated that most of these groups do not have names but "can be undercover components of the EPDP, police, or TID [Terrorist Investigation Department]" (ibid.). She also explained that there are "non-political, mafia-type street gangs" that blackmail those they perceive as vulnerable, wealthy, or with "something to hide" (ibid.). The Professor of political science expressed the opinion that a new resident in a Tamil neighbourhood "would likely be approached by the militia and their previous location and family information would be demanded" and that "a single woman would stand out as unusual" (Professor of political science 10 Mar. 2015).

7.4 Databases

According to a March 2014 report on torture and sexual violence in Sri Lanka produced by the Bar Human Rights Committee of England and Wales (BHRC), an organization that conducts international fact-finding missions on human rights (BHRC n.d.), "[e]vidence has emerged that the government of Sri Lanka constructed a central database recording the details of the Tamil community in Sri Lanka as well as LTTE suspects" and that security forces "debriefed thousands of Tamils" following the end of the civil war and entered their details into the database (BHRC Mar. 2014, 62-63). According to a UK Home Office Operational Guidance Note on Sri Lanka from July 2013, Sri Lankan authorities maintain a computerized "'stop' list" accessible at the airport, which comprises a list of persons with an extant court order or arrest warrant; individuals on the list will be stopped and directed to Sri Lankan authorities (UK July 2013, 11).

According to the Socio-cultural anthropologist, the government keeps track of those who have been through LTTE rehabilitation programs, and if a woman has been through such a program, she will be expected to report to a police station once per month, or once per week (Socio-cultural anthropologist 5 Apr. 2015). The same source indicated that there have been cases where police have asked for sexual favours in exchange for not coming in to report to them (ibid.). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The Visiting Professor indicated that the police maintain a database of individuals who are suspected of having been "actively involved" with the LTTE (9 Mar. 2015). The UK Home Office Operational Guidance Note indicates that, with reference to people returning to Sri Lanka, Sri Lankan authorities maintain a "computerised intelligence-led 'watch' list" and that the persons on this list "will be monitored by security services" upon their return to Sri Lanka (UK July 2013, 11). The same source indicates that "[a]ny risk for those in whom the Sri Lankan authorities are or become interested exists not at the airport, but after arrival in their home area, where their arrival will be verified by the CID [Criminal Investigation Department] or police within days" (UK July 2013, 10). For information on treatment of Tamil returnees to Sri Lanka, see Response to Information Request LKA105041.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Notes

[1] The Professor of social science and geography is also the Director for the Centre for Refugee Studies at York University.

[2] The socio-cultural anthropologist was formerly a senior research fellow at the International Center for Ethnic Studies and has been a visiting professor at the University of Colombo.

[3] IPS is described on its website as "an autonomous institution designed to promote policy-oriented economic research" in Sri Lanka that "work[s] closely with the government, private sector, academia, and civil society" (IPS n.d.).

References

Assistant Professor of Anthropology, Santa Clara University. 7 April 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

_____. 16 March 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Bar Human Rights Committee of England and Wales (BHRC). N.d. "About the BHRC." [Accessed 18 Mar. 2015]

Bar Human Rights Committee of England and Wales (BHRC) and the International Truth and Justice Project, Sri Lanka. March 2014. An Unfinished War: Torture and Sexual Violence in Sri Lanka 2009-2014. Yasmin Sooka. [Accessed 8 Mar. 2015]

Bertelsmann Stiftung. 2014. Transformation Index. BTI 2014: Sri Lanka Country Report 2014. [Accessed 7 Mar. 2015]

Institute of Policy Studies (IPS). N.d. "About." [Accessed 8 Mar. 2015]

International Organization for Migration (IOM). June 2014. Country Fact Sheet: Sri Lanka. [Accessed 8 Mar. 2015]

Norway. 7 December 2012. Landinfo: Country of Origin Information Centre. Sri Lanka: Human Rights and Security Issues Concerning the Tamil Population in Colombo and Northern Province. [Accessed 3 Mar. 2015]

Professor of political science, Nebraska Wesleyan University. 10 March 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Professor of social science and geography, York University. 6 March 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

_____. 23 February 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Senior Lecturer, Development Geography, University of Edinburgh. 16 March 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Socio-cultural anthropologist. 5 April 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

_____. 22 March 2015. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

_____. 9 March 2015. Telephone interview with the Research Directorate.

Tilakaratna, Ganga. May 2014. Social Protection and the MDGs in Sri Lanka - Implications for the Post-2015 Agenda. Southern Voice on Post-MDG International Development Goals. [Accessed 2 Mar. 2015]

United Kingdom (UK). July 2013. Home Office. "Sri Lanka - Operational Guidance Note V14." [Accessed 9 Mar. 2015]

United Nations (UN). 2013. International Labour Organization (ILO). Globalization, Employment, and Gender in the Open Economy of Sri Lanka. Employment Sector Working Paper No. 138. [Accessed 2 Mar. 2015]

_____. 21 December 2012. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). UNHCR Eligibility Guidelines for Assessing the International Protection Needs of Asylum Seekers from Sri Lanka. [Accessed 6 Mar. 2015]

United States (US). 27 February 2014. Department of State. "Sri Lanka." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2013. [Accessed 8 Apr. 2015]

_____. 19 April 2013. Department of State. "Sri Lanka." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2012. [Accessed 9 Mar. 2015]

Visiting Professor, Asian Studies, Temple University. 9 March 2015. Telephone interview with the Research Directorate.

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: The following were unable to provide information for this Response: Professor of sociology, Shiv Nadar University.

The following individuals and organizations were unable to provide information within the time constraints of this Response: Amnesty International; Professor at the University of Sussex.

Attempts to contact the following were unsuccessful within the time constraints of this Response: Asia Foundation; a Sri Lankan relocations firm; Associate Professor, University of Gothenburg; Canadian Tamil Congress; Centre for Human Rights Sri Lanka; Centre for Policy Alternatives; INFORM Human Rights Documentation Centre; Law & Society Trust; NGO Council; National Peace Council of Sri Lanka; Professors of Anthropology, Georgetown University and Stanford University; Professor of political science, San Francisco State University; Researcher, Dalhousie University; Sevanatha Urban Resource Centre [Colombo]; Suriya Women's Development Centre; Survivors Associated; Women and Media Collective [Colombo]; Women's Education and Research Centre [Colombo]; Women in Need Colombo; United Nations - UN-Habitat Colombo; UNHCR Colombo.

Internet sites, including: Amnesty International; Centre for Policy Alternatives; Colombo Telegraph; Factiva; Freedom House; Global Tamil Forum; Human Rights Watch; INFORM Human Rights Documentation Centre; Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC); International Crisis Group; Lanka Times; Sevenatha Urban Resource Centre; Sri Lanka - Department of Census and Statistics, Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka, Ministry of Resettlement, Reconstruction and Hindu Religious Affairs, Ministry of Women's Affairs; Sunday Times [Colombo]; TamilNet; Women and Media Collective; United Nations - Refworld.