Ethnic Minorities

1.   INTRODUCTION

1.1      History

Estonia became independent of the Russian empire in 1918. In 1925, a law on national minorities offered full cultural autonomy to ethnic Russian, Jewish and German nationals, who made up seven percent of the republic's population. This legislation stood out as the most liberal of its kind in interwar Europe (Mendelsohn 1983, 254; Polonsky, 1975). There was a major change in Estonia's national composition after it was annexed by the USSR in 1940. A massive influx of Russians and other non-Estonians, combined with a decline in the ethnic Estonian population through war, deportations and exodus to the West, raised the percentage of national minorities in the country to 38 percent in 1989 (Saar 1992, 30; RFE/RL 14 Sept. 1990, 20). This demographic shift and the subjugation of Estonia to Soviet Communist Party rule reduced Estonians to a politically subordinate group. Declarations of sovereignty (16 November 1988) and independence (30 March 1990) were followed by full independence after the failure of the August 1991 coup in the USSR. Estonia became a member of the United Nations on 17 September 1991 (Götz and Halbach 1992, 14).

1.2               Key Political Events Since September 1991

Estonian politics have been dominated by two interrelated issues since independence: the continuous presence of Russian troops on Estonian territory and the conflict over the rights of the Russian minority in the country. These two issues have been at the heart of political and legislative activity in Estonia and have been an element in differentiating political parties and movements. Differing views on how to manage the "Russian question" played a crucial role in bringing down the Savisaar government in January 1992 (The Guardian 13 Feb. 1992).

The passage of key pieces of legislation and the 20 September 1992 elections have dominated Estonia's political agenda for 1992. The nationality law and enabling legislation were passed by the Supreme Council in November 1991 and February 1992, respectively (RFE/RL 12 June 1992). The election law was passed on 6 April 1992 and revised in June 1992 (Ibid.). The Constitution of Estonia became law on 4 July 1992 following a referendum held on 28 June in which it was accepted by a vote of 91 percent (Radio Tallinn 29 June 1992). As a result of the passage of these laws, thousands of long-term residents of Estonia, mainly ethnic Russians, were not allowed to vote in the national elections, causing a political storm between Estonians and Russians. These developments are detailed throughout this paper.

1.3       Demography

According to the 1989 Soviet census, Estonia's population was 1,565,662, of which 61.5 percent were Estonians and 30 percent (474,834) Russians (SOYUZ Aug. 1990). Other ethnic minorities, including Ukrainians, Belarussians and Jews, generally tend to identify politically with the Russians and are seen as Russians by the native population of Estonia. Russians do not consider themselves to be an "ethnic minority" in Estonia. They refer to themselves as "Russian speakers" (Girenko 3 Sept. 1992). Thus, the population of Estonia is divided ethnically between Estonians and non-Estonians (referred to as Russian speakers) (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992; Girenko 3 Sept. 1992).

The Russian population of Estonia is concentrated in a few large cities: 43 percent live in Tallinn, accounting for about half of the capital's population, and 32 percent are concentrated in three large industrial cities in the northeast (Narva, Silamae, Khotla-Jarve), where they comprise over 90 percent of the population. The remaining 25 percent are dispersed throughout the remainder of Estonia (Samorodny 1992, 1).

Russian-speaking immigrants who have gone to Estonia since the end of World War II as labourers for the giant industrial complexes or to serve in the Soviet army were provided with housing (often unavailable to Estonians) and their own schools, separate from the Estonian school system (The Washington Times 1 June 1992). A degree of social stratification developed between Estonians and Russians. Many Russian speakers in Estonia have occupied blue-collar jobs which, under the Soviet system, were more highly paid, while intellectual professions were dominated by Estonians (The Washington Post 30 Sept. 1991; Swiss Review of World Affairs May 1991, 5). Politics were dominated by Russians up to 1990 (Raun, 1991). All of these factors contributed to the creation of two ethnic solitudes. While there has been no outward manifestation of hostility between them over the past four decades, there has been little communication (The Washington Times 1 June 1992).

2. MINORITY RIGHTS: THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND PRACTICE

2.1             The Constitution

Many observers, including non-Estonians, describe the constitution as liberal, democratic and non-discriminatory (East European Reporter July-Aug. 1992, 27; Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992; Permanent Mission of the Republic of Estonia 9 Sept. 1992). The Russian press has not pointed to the constitution as a problem when discussing human rights in Estonia. Final judgements on its fairness, however, will depend on how it is interpreted and put into practice (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992; RDME 11 Sept. 1992).

Article 49 of the Constitution of Estonia guarantees everyone the right to preserve ethnic identity (Eesti Paevaleht 19 June 1992). Article 50 states that ethnic minorities have the right to establish institutions of self-government in accordance with conditions and procedures determined by a yet to be passed law on cultural autonomy (Ibid.). Article 51 states that in localities where an ethnic minority represents more than 50 percent of the residents, the populace has the right to be served by public officials in the language of that ethnic minority (Ibid.).

According to Article 56 of the constitution, nationals of Estonia have the right to vote in national elections and referendums (Ibid.). In the same vein, Article 48 states that only Estonian nationals can be members of political parties, and Article 30 states that positions in state and local governments can be held by non-nationals only in exceptional situations (Ibid.). From the Russian perspective, these are restrictions on the rights of the Russian-speaking population (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 26 Mar. 1992, 3). The restrictions are not in the constitutional provisions per se--it is common that only nationals can vote in national elections--but in the definition of who is eligible for Estonian nationality.

2.2      The Nationality Law

The nationality law, based on a 1938 statute, states that all nationals of the interwar Republic of Estonia and their descendants possess Estonian nationality (RFE/RL 12 June 1992). Women who are married to Estonian nationals can also acquire nationality automatically (RDME 11 Sept. 1992; Kionka 16 Oct. 1992). Non-Estonian men whose wives are Estonian nationals, however, cannot (Ibid.). According to one source, this latter provision is recognized as an oversight that will be corrected in the future (Kionka 16 Oct. 1992). It has been estimated that about 100,000 ethnic Russians automatically became Estonian nationals (RFE/RL 12 June 1992, 16).

There are three major conditions which must be met by those wishing to become nationals by naturalization (RFE/RL 12 June 1992). First, applicants must have resided in Estonia for two years starting on or after 30 March 1990 and must have a legal source of income. After submitting the applications, would-be nationals must wait for another year, meaning that 30 March 1993 is the earliest that a person could acquire nationality through application. Second, applicants must demonstrate competence in the Estonian language. Third, applicants must swear allegiance to the state (RFE/RL 12 June 1992, 15, 16; Soviet Press Digest 27 Feb. 1992).

In the spring of 1992, the government of Estonia introduced a special application process for people with exceptional professional qualifications. Such individuals can be nominated for nationality at their workplace, which effectively speeds up the process of naturalization. Only 19 individuals have received nationality under this programme, however, and all but one are ethnic Estonians (RFE/RL 15 May 1992, 64).

According to a public opinion poll conducted in July 1992, 35 percent of Russian speakers polled wished to acquire Estonian nationality and 25 percent would prefer to have the nationality of Russia or another country (RDME 11 Sept. 1992). An official Estonian source, however, believes that there is no great demand for Estonian nationality among resident Russian speakers (Permanent Mission of the Republic of Estonia 9 Sept. 1992). As of May 1992 about 40,000 non-Estonian residents had applied for Estonian nationality and 9,000 had applied for Russian nationality (Moscow News 7-14 June 1992, 5; RFE/RL 22 May 1992, 70). Adding this to the estimated 100,000 non-Estonians who automatically received nationality means that there could be 400,000 to 500,000 residents of Estonia who do not have, or have not applied for, Estonian nationality.

The requirements for acquiring nationality remain the most contentious political issue in Estonia. In the first instance, long-time residents of Estonia who did not qualify for automatic nationality were effectively disenfranchised and therefore could not vote in the September 1992 national elections (see section 2.4) (Kionka 16 Oct. 1992; Permanent Mission of the Republic of Estonia 9 Sept. 1992). Second, the language requirement is seen by many as an effective barrier to acquiring nationality through the naturalization process (see section 2.3) (RDME 11 Sept. 1992; Nezavisimaia Gazeta 25 Mar. 1992). Because Russian-speaking non-nationals are uncertain of whether they can acquire nationality, there is a widespread concern among them about the extent to which their rights will be protected. The Russian Democratic Movement of Estonia (RDME) maintains that the introduction of the law on nationality stands as an obstacle to the creation of a legal democratic state, establishes a principle of Estonia for Estonians and is a curb on human rights (BBC Summary 6 Mar. 1992).

2.3                Language Laws

Knowledge of the Estonian language among Russian speakers is very limited. This is largely due to the separation of the Estonian and Russian school systems under Soviet rule and the absence of social and political incentives for Russian speakers to learn Estonian. Even Estonian-born Russians are often unable to speak Estonian (The Guardian 10 Sept. 1991).

The Estonian language law and the implementing legislation were passed by parliament on 18 January 1989 and 14 June 1989, respectively (Zakon 18 Jan. 1989; RFE/RL 12 Apr. 1991). The law deems Estonian the only official language of the country. It gives nationals the right to an Estonian language education and guarantees national minorities the same right in their mother tongue (Ibid.).

According to one analyst, the Estonian language law provides a balance between protecting the Estonian language and the rights of minorities (Uibopuu 1989, 210).

The legislation establishes categories of fluency in Estonian, ranging from A(bare minimum) to F (full, near native fluency). Applicants must receive at least a D-level to qualify for Estonian nationality (Rukovodstvo 14 July 1989). The official Estonian position is that the language exam will be based on some 1,500 key words, but the actual test of language proficiency for nationality applicants has still not been set (Kionka 16 Oct. 1992; Permanent Mission of the Republic of Estonia 9 Sept. 1992; Eesti Elu 27 Apr. 1992). Reports about the test's degree of difficulty vary widely, but without a published version, these are speculative judgements. One Russian newspaper indicates that applicants who fail the exam can reportedly reopen the naturalization process, but no more details were provided and this information has not been corroborated (Moscow News 7-14 June 1992, 5).

According to the RDME, many residents will not qualify for nationality as a result of the language exam (11 Sept. 1992; Nezavisimaia Gazeta 25 Mar. 1992, 3). The uncertainty surrounding this issue has generated concern and fears among Russian speakers, especially when passing a language exam is necessary not only for acquiring nationality, but also for retaining certain jobs (see section 5) (Radio Tallinn 25 Apr. 1992).

Although the Estonian Language Authority maintains that the state is under no obligation to assist nationality applicants in improving their skills, the government has agreed to offer free beginner courses for those studying Estonian (Eesti Elu 27 Apr. 1992; Izvestiia 27 Apr. 1992, 1). Representatives of the Estonian Foreign Ministry have acknowledged that there are some problems associated with the administration of the language exam (Lawyers Committee for Human Rights 15 Oct. 1992). According to a Russian newspaper, language exam certificates are already available on the black market (Moscow News 7-14 June 1992, 5).

Separate from the language requirement for nationality, the Estonian language will have to be spoken by all public servants. The 1989 language law gives public servants roughly four years to acquire competency in the Estonian language, that is, until the end of 1993 (Hameen Sanomat 31 May 1992; Rukovodstvo 14 July 1989). Exams are in place to test workers in "special lines of work" for proficiency in the Estonian language (Eesti Elu 27 April 1992).

2.4    The Election Law: Voting Rights

The election law governing parliamentary and presidential elections originally stated that only nationals who reside permanently in Estonia have the right to vote in national elections (RFE/RL 12 June 1992). In the latter part of June 1992, however, the Supreme Council revised this law, giving all nationals, regardless of their place of residence, the right to vote in national elections (Ibid. 3 July 1992b, 75). This allowed several thousand émigré Estonians to vote (Ibid.).

In the constitutional referendum, Estonians were also asked to decide whether voting rights for the 20 September 1992 national elections should be extended to those people who had submitted their applications to become naturalized nationals by 5 June 1992 (RFE/RL 12 June 1992, 16). A majority of 53 percent were against the proposal (Ibid. 3 July 1992a, 61). As a result, non-nationals could not vote in the September elections. They will, however, be allowed to run and vote in local elections (Kionka 16 Oct. 1992; Permanent Mission of the Republic of Estonia 9 Sept. 1992).

2.5            Other Legal Issues

Estonia introduced its own passports in 1992 and, according to one observer, they are being issued as scheduled (Kionka 16 Oct. 1992). There is uncertainty about the status of Soviet passports, however. One source indicated that they will become invalid at the end of 1992, thereby imposing a restriction on the freedom of movement of non-nationals (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992). Another analyst contends, however, that permanent residents who are not nationals of Estonia will be able to use their Soviet passports beyond 1992 (Kionka 16 Oct. 1992). On 1 July 1992, Estonia introduced visas for visitors crossing the eastern frontier with Russia. These visas are said to be difficult to obtain (Izvestiia 1 July 1992 1; Literaturnaia Gazeta 15 July 1992, 9).             The 1989 Law On the Ethnic Rights of Citizens of the Estonian SSR guarantees the general rights of minorities in Estonia, most of which are also enshrined in the constitution (Sovetskaia Estoniia 17 Dec. 1989). These rights include the right to elementary as well as secondary education in Estonian and Russian. State assistance to ethnic associations is also guaranteed by the law, as is the right to distribute information in their native language (Articles 4, 5). Most importantly, however, these rights apply only to nationals of Estonia (Ibid.).             The Law of the Republic of Estonia On the Estonian Bar Association states that only nationals can be members of the Bar (Rahva Haal 7 Jan. 1992). In practice, however, non-Estonians who are already members can retain their membership (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992).

3.         POLITICAL PARTIES

The left and right of Estonia's political spectrum disagree sharply on the issue of political rights for non-Estonians. The Estonian National Independence Party and the conservative coalition Isamaa (Pro Patria or Fatherland) - consisting of the Republican, Christian Democratic, Conservative National and Liberal Democratic Parties - maintain that only nationals should be given the right to vote (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 11 Aug. 1992, 3). Their platforms include protecting the Estonian language and culture, building a viable Estonian army and encouraging the voluntary repatriation of Russians (Ibid.; RFE/RL 12 June 1992, 16).

Left-of-centre groups such as the Safe Home coalition, which is under the leadership of the popular former head of the Estonian Communist Party, Arnold Ruutel, and the People's Center Party, led by former prime minister Edgar Savisaar, are proponents of universal franchise (RFE/RL 12 June 1992, 16-17). The Popular Front of Estonia is against national discrimination in Estonia and has supported the protection of social, economic and political rights of non-nationals. Once a powerful political movement, it has now split into several parties (Rossiiskaia Gazeta 13 Apr. 1992, 7).

In the 20 September 1992 presidential elections, Arnold Ruutel won 43 percent of the popular vote, short of the majority required to become president. Isamaa's candidate, Lennart Meri, trailed with 28 percent (Lawyers Committee for Human Rights 25 Sept. 1992). The presidency was therefore to be decided by the newly-elected Estonian parliament. The parliamentary elections favoured the more conservative nationalist and pro-market parties. The Isamaa coalition took 28 seats and subsequently added another through a defection, and the Estonian National Independence Party won 10 seats (Ibid.). The left-of-centre Safe Home Coalition and People's Center Party won 18 and 16 seats, respectively. The new, conservative parliament, which has no representative from an ethnic minority, named Meri as president on 5 October 1992 (RFE/RL 9 Oct. 1992).

On 8 October 1992, President Meri asked Mart Laar, chair of the Isamaa coalition, to form the next government (Ibid.). It will consist of members of three political groupings - Isamaa, the Moderates (with 15 parliamentary seats) and the Estonian National Independence Party - which together form a majority in the 101-seat parliament (Ibid.). The government is conservative and nationalist but appears to have been formed more around a common platform of rapidly introducing a market economy than around ethnic issues (Ibid. 9 Oct. 1992; Lawyers Committee for Human Rights 25 Sept. 1992; Gazeta Wyborcza 22 Sept. 1992, 1, 7).

Other important political players are the Kaitseliit (Defence Union) and the Russian Democratic Movement of Estonia (RDME). Kaitseliit is a paramilitary, voluntary movement that recently won official recognition in Estonia. The movement is now under the command of Estonia's defence forces (Postfactum 1 May 1992). It has recently been involved in several attacks on Russian military personnel and facilities, mostly to steal ammunition (Krasnaia Zvezda 15 July 1992, 1; Komsomolskaia Pravda 4 July 1992, 5). The government of Estonia has reportedly had to issue a public statement denouncing certain activities of Kaitseliit (BALTFAX 14 July 1992).

The RDME calls itself a broadly based social movement organized to defend the rights of Russians in Estonia. It is a small organization, in part because Russians in Estonia are generally not active in political parties or movements (Kionka 16 Oct. 1992). RDME is based and officially registered in Estonia but is believed to have close ties to Russia. Although there are many factions within the movement, they are united in opposing the nationality and language laws, and the disenfranchisement of those individuals who applied for nationality (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 19 Feb. 1992, 3; Ibid. 18 Mar. 1992, 3; Ibid. 25 Mar. 1992, 3). The movement has reportedly been involved in strikes in the northeast (Moscow News 7-14 June 1992, 5). It has stopped short, however, of adopting "extreme" resolutions concerning the perceived anti-Russian policy of the government of Estonia (Rossiiskaia Gazeta 27 Mar. 1992, 7).

4.         SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION AND ETHNIC TENSIONS

4.1   Social Discrimination

In mid-1992, the Russian newspaper Izvestiia reported that 70 percent of those unemployed in Estonia are Russians; another report cited unemployment in the Russian-dominated northeast of Estonia to be 34.6 percent (Izvestiia 16 June 1992, 1; The Washington Times 1 June 1992). There are economic reasons for the high rate of unemployment in this region. It is the centre of Estonia's rust belt and the traditional Soviet market for products manufactured there has collapsed (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 28 Feb. 1992, 3; The Washington Times 1 June 1992). Russians of the northeast are consequently bearing much of the economic hardship associated with the drive toward a market-based economy.

Strikes at power plants in the northeast and other calls for civil disobedience have consequently had an economic as well as political foundation (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 24 Apr. 1992, 3; Rossiiskaia Gazeta 6 Apr. 1992, 3). To date, such strikes have been short and without great impact. As the region generates much of Estonia's electricity, warning strikes at these installations carry some political leverage. In connection with these strikes, two Russian workers from the northeast were charged with civil disobedience (Rossiiskaia Gazeta 30 April 1992, 7).

Little information is available on possible discrimination in the workplace. One Russian source maintains, without providing specific details, that discrimination against Russians is widespread in hiring practices (Girenko 3 Sept. 1992). One specific example, related by another source, concerns an ethnic Ukrainian member of the Estonian Academy of Sciences who, although he has applied for nationality and is married to an Estonian national, claims that his chances for promotion, travel abroad and work on the more prestigious research projects are limited because of his ethnicity (Jaworsky 11 Oct. 1992).

Non-nationals are currently eligible to apply for unemployment benefits (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992). There is some concern, however, that if this changes, non-Estonian residents who lose a job would be unable to show a legal source of income, a prerequisite for acquiring nationality (Moscow News 26 Apr. 1992, 16). A similar concern has also been expressed in cases where people are being forced to take long (three to four month) unpaid vacations. As they are officially employed and therefore ineligible for unemployment benefits, they have no source of income (RDME 11 Sept. 1992).

In the spring of 1992, the Estonian police and home guard conducted extensive checks for illegal aliens in Tallinn (BBC Summary 20 March 1992). Such actions may raise fears among non-nationals who are uncertain of their legal situation.

With respect to property rights, non-nationals do not have the right to buy land (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992; Soviet Press Digest 27 Feb. 1992). Non-nationals can, however, purchase property (e.g., houses and factories) and lease the land the property is on (Kionka 16 Oct. 1992). According to Article 32 of the constitution, certain categories of property can be reserved for ownership by Estonian nationals (Eesti Paevaleht 19 June 1992). There are also concerns that the privatization of state property may benefit nationals only (Soviet Press Digest 27 Feb. 1992). Thus, ownership rights are tied closely to the controversial issue of nationality. Nevertheless, there are no known cases where residents' property (ownership) rights have been violated (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992; Girenko 3 Sept. 1992).

Acting as a guarantor of the rights of Russians living abroad, Russia has raised the issue of minority rights in Estonia in international institutions such as the Council of Europe, the Baltic Council and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 16 May 1992, 2; Izvestiia 2 Apr. 1992, 5). The government of Russia argues that the treatment of Russians in Estonia violates the terms of the 1991 Russian-Estonian agreement (Rossiiskaia Gazeta 16 Apr. 1992, 7). Russia has alleged that the government of Estonia has contributed to an atmosphere of intolerance, aggressive nationalism and xenophobia (Ibid. 9 May 1992, 5). The Russian parliament has also passed a resolution on human rights in the Baltic states maintaining that Russians are being excluded from nationality and political life and are discriminated against on economic grounds (Ibid. 23 July 1992, 1; Komsomolskaia Pravda 18 July 1992, 1). An article in Izvestiia accused the Estonian press of Russophobia (Izvestiia, 1 Aug. 1992). After the Estonian elections, the Russian Foreign Minister, proposed to the United Nations that international trusteeships be established in the Baltic states to protect ethnic minorities (Lawyers Committee for Human Rights 25 Sept. 1992).

Estonian officials, on the other hand, complain of Russia's attempts to turn Estonia into a satellite, to pursue imperialist policies and to put political pressure on Estonia (Izvestiia 20 July 1992, 2; Ibid. 29 May 1992, 1; Ibid. 8 June 1992, 4). The government of Estonia has established a press department intended to counter the "anti-Estonian propaganda" emanating from Russia (Ibid. 11 Aug. 1992, 3).

4.2  Ethnic Tensions

The new laws, especially the nationality law, have generated strong protests by the Russian population in Estonia, especially in the northeast where Russians represent close to 80 percent of the population (Literaturnaia Gazeta 22 Apr. 1992, 9). Some Russian residents call for autonomy for the northeast, while others advocate secession from Estonia (Samorodny 1992; Rossiiskaia Gazeta 1 July 1992, 7; Ibid. 20 June 1992, 5). Estonian government officials have expressed their concern that some of the more extreme groups in the region are arming themselves to fight against the government of Estonia (BALTFAX 14 Aug. 1992). According to the chairman of the Narva city council, however, such reports are groundless (Ibid. 27 July 1992).

In the spring of 1992, the situation in northeastern Estonia was reportedly tense (Rossiiskaia Gazeta 20 June 1992, 5). Yielding to pressure from Russian trade unions in the northeast, the parliament sent a commission to study the situation (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 14 May 1992, 3). Despite the tense atmosphere, no violent confrontations between Estonian and Russian-speaking civilians have been reported.

Ethnic tensions are also fueled by the presence of some 20,000 Russian troops on Estonian territory (Reuters 22 July 1992). The governments of Estonia and Russia disagree on the timetable of Russian withdrawal and on a number of other issues such as ownership of property. Estonia asks that the troops withdraw by the end of 1992. In sharp contrast, Russia proposes a gradual withdrawal beginning no earlier than 1997 (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 8 May 1992, 3).

The tensions have led to a number of clashes between Russian military personnel and Kaitseliit (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 26 May 1992, 3; Krasnaia Zvezda 14 July 1992, 1; Ibid. 30 July 1992, 3; Ibid. 31 July 1992, 1; Izvestiia 26 May 1992, 2; Ibid. 7 Aug. 1992, 2). Russia has alleged that attacks on its army and installations by Estonian paramilitary groups are tacitly supported by Estonian authorities (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 14 July 1992, 3). The two governments continue to hold talks on bilateral issues, but there have been no reports of headway on the timetable for the withdrawal of Russian troops.

5.       PROTECTION OF MINORITIES

The rights of ethnic minorities to form associations, protect their culture and ethnic symbols and have access to education in minority languages are enshrined in the constitution. The perception among Russian speakers, however, is that these rights apply only to nationals (Girenko 3 Sept. 1992).

One area where the protection of ethnic rights will be closely monitored is education. The Estonian and Russian school systems, which have been separated since the 1940s, are scheduled to be merged into a single educational structure over the next three years. Education in Russian is currently funded by the state and available in elementary and secondary schools. Increasingly, however, the language of instruction for grades 10 to 12 emphasizes Estonian, and, by 1995, students will not be able to graduate from secondary school without an evaluation in Estonian (Baltiyskaia Gazeta June 1992). Currently, postsecondary education in the Russian language is believed to be widely available (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992). An RDME leader, however, believes that only Estonian will be used in the future (RDME 11 Sept. 1992).

Another concern of non-nationals is that they may lose their jobs. Certain professions, such as advocates, judges, police officers, ship captains and airline pilots have already been designated for nationals only. The government of Estonia has, however, provided for at least temporary job protection by passing a resolution which allows non-nationals to remain in these positions until 31 December 1993, provided that they will have applied for nationality by 31 December 1992 (Radio Tallinn 25 Apr. 1992).

As no civilian clashes between Estonians and ethnic minorities have been reported, the ability and willingness of the police to protect minorities has not been tested. It is likely that minorities would have some police protection in the event of inter-ethnic conflict, as police forces in Estonia currently have a large ethnic Russian component (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992; Kionka 16 Oct. 1992). There are reports, however, of a process of Estonianization of the police force, whose members will have to be nationals by the end of 1993 (Kruus 8 Oct. 1992; Kionka 16 Oct. 1992).

There have been no reports that residents are turning to the courts to seek protection of their minority rights. According to a lawyer in Estonia this is because people adopted a "wait-and-see" attitude pending the outcome of the 20 September 1992 parliamentary elections (Kikkas 10 Sept. 1992). One exception is Vladimir Lebedev, a deputy to the previous Supreme Council. Lebedev, an ethnic Russian who has lived in Estonia from the age of five, is an outspoken defender of Russian minority rights. He has filed suit for Estonian nationality on the grounds that the government of Estonia is ignoring the Estonian-Russian treaty of 1991 and violating human rights by not granting him nationality (RFE/RL 23 July 1992, 5).

In general, protection of minority rights has not yet been sufficiently tested. The September 1992 elections may, however, provide a turning point as the new government is going to be forced to make decisions on minority rights and nationality issues.

6.               JEWS IN ESTONIA

According to the 1989 Soviet census, there were 4,613 Jews in Estonia, but many have emigrated since then (Natsionalnyi sostav nasileniya 1989). Most Jews currently living in the country are Russian-speaking and tend to identify culturally with Russians. Jews were divided in their attitudes toward Baltic separatism, but the initial liberal policy of the Estonian Popular Front helped win Jewish support in the drive for independence.

It has been stated that the revival of Jewish cultural autonomy in the former USSR began in the Baltics in 1987. There are several Jewish institutions in Estonia and a Russian-language Jewish periodical is published there (Haaretz 19 Nov. 1991). In 1991, Estonia, in a symbolic gesture, expressed sorrow for all Jews killed in the country during the Holocaust (The Jerusalem Post 26 Oct. 1991). At the same time, according to representatives of two Soviet Jewry organizations in the United States, Jews have been adversely affected by the antagonism between the Estonians and Russians, as Jews are sometimes identified with Russians. A representative of the Chicago Action on Soviet Jewry claims also that the nationality law in Estonia is discriminatory against Jews (Chicago Action on Soviet Jewry 18 June 1992; Action for Soviet Jewry, 17 June 1992).

Although there is no Pamyat in Estonia, a Russian antisemitic group has been formed. A meeting held in Tallinn in the summer of 1992 to protect the rights of "Slavic minorities" in Estonia, however, attracted few supporters (Nezavisimaia Gazeta 16 July 1992, 3).

7.                CURRENT SITUATION

The law on nationality is the most contentious issue for ethnic minorities in Estonia. The primary concern is whether the protection of minority rights will apply to non-nationals. There have been many allegations by Russian speakers in Estonia and by the government of Russia concerning violations of human and minority rights, but no pattern of systematic violations of the existing laws and guarantees could be found.

Russian-speaking non-nationals, while expressing concerns about what may happen to them in future should they not receive nationality, appear to have adopted a "wait-and-see" attitude pending the outcome of the national elections. The new, more conservative and nationalist government formed in early October 1992 will undoubtedly raise anxieties among non-nationals about their future. If their legal status regarding nationality is not resolved soon, most Russian speakers risk continued exclusion from the political process and from certain economic benefits, such as land ownership. A perception amongst ethnic Russians that they are foreigners in Estonia will likely escalate ethnic tensions in the country. To date, however, ethnic clashes have been confined to those between Russian troops and Estonian paramilitary groups. An orderly and quick withdrawal of Soviet military units from Estonia would help reduce the danger of violence spilling over to the civilian population.

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The Guardian. 10 September 1991. Julian Borger. "Independence Brings Ethnic Fears to Surface in Estonia."

Haaretz [Tel Aviv, in Hebrew]. 19 November 1991. "Jews in Soviet Union Organizing Politically, Socially." (JPRS-NEA-91-078)

Hameen Sanomat [Hameenlinna, in Finnish]. 31 May 1992. Jorma Virtanen. "Linguist and National Front Politician Mati Hint: The Best Russians Are Leaving Estonia." (FBIS-USR-92-089 17 July 1992, pp. 117-118)

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 11 August 1992. Arnold Pyshkar. "Sed'maia volna emigratsii [The Seventh Wave of Emigration]," p. 3.

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 7 August 1992. Leonid Levitsky. "Intsident na mostu druzhby [Incident on the Bridge of Friendship]," p. 2.

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 1 August 1992. Leonid Levitsky. "Russians Viewed with Condescension." (FBIS-USR-92-104 15 Aug. 1992, pp. 81-82).

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 20 July 1992. Leonid Levitsky. "MID Estonii obvinyet rossiy v politicheskom davlenii [Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Accuses Russia of Political Pressure]," p. 2.

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 1 July 1992. "Estonia okonchatel'no stala zagranitsei [Estonia is Once and For all a Foreign Country]," p 1.

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 16 June 1992. "Bez Raboty v Estonii ostaiutsia v osnovnom Russkie [Unemployment in Estonia Affects Mainly Russians]," p. 1.

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 8 June 1992. Genadyi Cherodev. "Estonskii posol obvinyet Moskvu v imperialisme [The Ambassador of Estonia Accuses Moscow of Imperialism]," p. 4.

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 29 May 1992. "Posol Estonii podozrevait rossiyu [The Ambassador of Estonia is Suspicious of Russia]," p. 1.

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 26 May 1992. Leonid Levitsky. "Estonskie pogranichniki zakhvatili zenitno raketnii polk [Estonian Border Guards Captured an Anti-Aircraft Regiment]," p. 2.

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 27 April 1992. "Estonskomu iazyku obuchaiut besplatno [Free Training in the Estonian Language]," p. 1.

Izvestiia [Moscow, in Russian]. 2 April 1992. Genadyi Cherodev. "Moskva ozabochena narusheniem prav chelovieka v Estonii [Moscow is Worried About Human Rights Violations in Estonia]," p. 5.

Jaworsky, Ivan. Professor at the University of Waterloo, Ontario. 11 October 1992. Personal Interview.

The Jerusalem Post. 26 October 1991. Herb Keinon. "Vilnius Stops Exonerating its Nazi War Criminals."

Kikkas, Nadezhda. Lawyer from Tallinn, Estonia. 10 September 1992. Telephone Interview.

Kionka, Riina. Research Analyst at Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Institute, Munich, Germany. 16 October 1992. Telephone Interview.

Komsomolskaia Pravda [Moscow, in Russian]. 18 July 1992. "Diplomatiia [Diplomacy]," p. 1.

Komsomolskaia Pravda [Moscow, in Russian]. 4 July 1992. "V Estonskoi armii predpochitaiut frantsuzskie sapogi i rossiiskie avtomaty [In the Estonian Army They Prefer French Boots and Russian Machine Guns]," p. 5.

Krasnaia Zvezda [Moscow, in Russian]. 31 July 1992. "Estoniia: napadeniia na rossiiskie voinskie chasti prodolzhaiutsia [Estonia: Assaults on Russian Military Units Continue]," p. 1.

Krasnaia Zvezda [Moscow, in Russian]. 30 July 1992. "Pravitel'stvo Estonii priznalo deistviia svoikh sil samooborony po zakhvatu voennogo ob"ekta oshibochnymi [The Estonian Government Acknowledges that the Seizing of Mmilitary Facilities by its Self-Defence Forces was Mistaken]," p. 1.

Krasnaia Zvezda [Moscow, in Russian]. 15 July 1992. "Dlia Estonskogo 'Kaitseliita' voina ne zakonchilas'. Napadeniia na rossiiskie voiska prodolzhayutsia [For Estonian 'Kaitseliit' the War has not Finished. Attacks on Russian Troops Continue]," p. 1.

Krasnaia Zvezda [Moscow, in Russian]. 14 July 1992. "Na doroge Khaapsalu-Tallinn byli zakhvacheny zalozhniki. Rossiiskie voennye ikh otbili [Hostages Were Taken on the Road from Haapsalu. Russian Soldiers Rescued Them]," p. 1.

Kruus, Martin. Professor at the University of Tartu, Estonia. 8 October 1992. Telephone Interview.

Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, New York. 15 October 1992. Telephone Interview with Representative.

Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, New York. 25 September 1992. Internal memorandum on "Estonian Elections and Related Background and Developments".

Literaturnaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 15 July 1992. "Tallinn: Visa podesheveet [Tallinn: Cheaper Visas]," p. 9.

Literaturnaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 22 April 1992. "Izgnat' iz goroda ves gorod? [Can You Banish the Entire Population of the City from the City?]," p.9.

Mendelsohn, Ezra. 1983. The Jews of East Central Europe Between the Wars. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Molodezh Estonii [Tallinn, in Russian]. 6 July 1990. "Draft of 'Provisional Law on Citizenship'." (JPRS-UPA-90-051 5 Sept. 1990 pp. 8-9)

Moscow News [Moscow, in English]. 7-14 June 1992. No. 23. Grant Gukasov. "Strikers Undecided about Their Citizenship," p. 5.

Moscow News [Moscow, in English]. 26 April 2 May 1992, No. 17. Vladimir Konstantinov. "Estonia: Some Peoples are More Equal than Others," p.16.

Natsionalnyi sostav naseleniya [National Composition of the Population]. 1989. Moscow: Information Publishing Centre.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 11 August 1992. Elena Visens. "Kandidaty vo vlast' nazvany [Candidates are Called to Power], " p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 16 July 1992. Valerie Jacobson. "Antisemitov nie pustili v matroskii klub [Antisemites are not Permitted in the Sailors' Club]," p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 14 July 1992. Elena Visens "'Kaitseliit' nachinaet deistvovat' ['Kaitseliit' Begins to Function]," p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 26 May 1992. Vladimir Skachko. "Vladimir Grinyov: V okruzhenii presidenta nyet poriadka [Vladimir Grunov: There is no Order Among the President's Advisors]," p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 16 May 1992. Elena Visens. "Rossia pomnit o svoikh sootechestvennikakh [Russia Remembers its Compatriots]," p. 2.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 14 May 1992. Il'ia Pobedonostsev. "Inostrantsy v respubliki: Snova o probleme grazhdanstva [Foreigners in the Republic: Again on the Question of Citizenship]," p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 8 May 1992. Elena Visens. "Shto takoe vykhod voisk? Eto kazhdy ponimaet po svoiemu [What Does Troop Withdrawal Mean? Everyone Has Their Own Idea]," p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 24 April 1992. Il'ia Pobedonostsev. "Zabastovka sostoialas': No pereboev s elektrichestvom ne bylo [Strike is Held: But There was no Disruption in Electricity]" p.3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 26 March 1992. Il'ia Pobedonoctsev. "Kongres Estonii protiv ee parlamenta [The Congress of Estonia Opposes its Parliament]," p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 25 March 1992. Elena Visens. "Mozhet poprosit grazhdanstvo no neobizatelno evo poluchit [It is Possible to Request Citizenship but one is Not Certain to Recieve it]"             p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 18 March 1992. Il'ia Pobedonostsev. "My obrecheny borotsia za svoi prava [We are Rreturning to Fight for our Rights]," p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 28 February 1992. Il'ia Pobedonostsev. "Golodnye i svobodnye' na ploshadi Narvy [Hungry and Free on the Squares of Narva]," p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 21 February 1992. Alexandr Lushchin. "Ty zapisalsia dobrovolitsem? [Are You Registered as a Volunteer?]," p. 3.

Nezavisimaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 19 February 1992. Elena Visens. " Krizis prodolzhaetsia [The Crisis Continues]," p. 3.

Permanent Mission of the Republic of Estonia to the United Nations, New York. 9 September 1992. Telephone Interview with Representative.

Polonsky, Antony. 1975. Little Dictators: History of Eastern Europe Since 1918. London: Routledge.

Postfactum. [Moscow, in English]. 1 May 1992. "Military News" (FBIS-SOV-92-086 4 May 1992, p. 68)

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 9 October 1992. Program Brief [Munich]. Riina Kionka, "New Estonian Prime Minister Named."

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 23 July 1992. Daily Report [Munich]. No. 139. "Estonian Deputy Sues for Citizenship," p. 5.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 3 July 1992a. RFE/RL Research Report [Munich]. Vol. 1, No. 27. Riina Kionka. "Drafting New Constitutions: Estonia" pp. 57-61.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 3 July 1992b. RFE/RL Research Report [Munich]. Vol. 1, No. 27. Suzanne Crow, Alexander Rahr, and Roman Solchanyk. "Election Law Revised Again," p. 75.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 12 June 1992. Research Report [Munich]. Vol. 1, No. 24. Riina Kionka. "Estonian Political Struggle Centers on Voting Rights," pp. 15-17.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 22 May 1992. RFE/RL Research Report [Munich]. Vol. 1, No. 21. Suzanne Crow, Elizabeth Fuller, Elizabeth Teague and Vera Tolz. "Weekly Review," p. 70.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 15 May 1992. RFE/RL Research Report [Munich]. Vol. 1, No. 20. Suzanne Crow, Kathleen Mihalisko, Elizabeth Teague and Vera Tolz. "Weekly Review," p. 67.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 12 April 1991. Report on the USSR [Munich]. Vol. 3, No. 15. Riina Kionka. "Are the Baltic Laws Discriminatory?", p. 21.

Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). 14 September 1990. Report on the USSR [Munich]. Vol. 2, No. 37. Riina Kionka. "Migration to and from Estonia," pp. 20-24.

Radio Tallinn [in Estonian]. 29 June 1992. "Referendum Shows 91% Favor New Constitution." (FBIS-SOV-92-127 1 July 1992, p. 69)

Radio Tallinn [in Estonian]. 25 April 1992. "Law Approved Protecting Russians' Work. (FBIS-SOV-92-083 29 April 1992, p. 71)

Rahva Haal. [Tallinn, in Estonian]. 7 January 1992. "Text of Law of the Republic of Estonia "On the Estonian Bar Association'," (FBIS-USR-92-049 28 Apr. 1992, pp. 227-229)

Raun, Toivo U. 1991. Estonia and the Estonians. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press.

Reuters. 22 July 1992. Vanora Bennett. "Estonians Take up Guns Against Russian Army." (NEXIS)

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 23 July 1992. "Zaiavlenie Verkhovnogo Soveta Rossiiskoi Federatsii o pravakh cheloveka v gosudarstvakh Baltii [Declaration of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation on Human Rights in the Baltic States]," p. 1.

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 1 July 1992. "Po severo-vostoku Estonii vrodit prizrak pridnestrov'ia [The Ghost of Pridnestrove is Walking in the Northeast of Estonia]," p.7.

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 23 June 1992. "Kronika [News Items]," p. 7.

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 20 June 1992. "Terpeniiu russkikh v Estonii prikhodit konets [The Patience of Russians in Estonia Comes to an End]," p. 5.

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 9 May 1992. "MID Rossii o narushenii prav cheloveka v stranakh Baltii [Ministry of Foreign Affairs on Human Rights Violations in Baltic Countries]" p. 5.

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 30 April 1992. "Kronika: Estonia [News Items: Estonia]" p. 7.

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 16 April 1992. "Prava cheloveka: Neestontsy tozhe liudi [Human rights: Non-Estonians are also People]" p. 7.

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 13 April 1992. "Tallinn," p. 7.

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 6 April 1992. "Ob"iavlena predzabastovochnaia gotovnost' [Pre-strike Preparedness Announced]," p. 3.

Rossiiskaia Gazeta [Moscow, in Russian]. 27 March 1992. "Krainosti otvergnuty [The Extremes Rejected], " p. 7.

Rukovodstvo po primeneniiu trebovanii k vladeniiu iazykom v Estonskoi SSR [Legislation on the Implementation of the Language Fluency Requirements]. 14 July 1989. Text of Legislation.

Russian Democratic Movement of Estonia (RDME), Tallinn. 11 September 1992. Telephone Interview with Co-Chairperson.

Saar, Ellu and Mikk Titma. 1992. Migrationsströme im sowjetisierten Baltikum und ihre Nachwirkung auf die baltischen Staaten nach Wiederherstellung der Selbständigkeit [Migratory Currents in the Sovietized Baltics and their Impact on the Baltic States after Regaining Independence]. Cologne: Bundesinstitut für ostwissenschaftliche und internationale Studien, 9-1992.

Samorodny, Oleg. 1992. "K voprosu o ruskoiazychnoi avtonomnoi respublike na severo-vostoke Estonii [On the Question of a Russian-language Autonomous Republic in the Northeast of Estonia]," unpublished manuscript for the Estonian Academy of Sciences.

Sovetskaia Estoniia. [Tallinn, in Russian]. 17 December 1989. "The Estonian SSR Law 'On the Ethnic Rights of Citizens of the Estonian SSR issued in Tallinn, 15 December 1989," (JPRS-UPA-90-005 1 Feb., p. 29)

Soviet Press Digest [Moscow]. 27 February 1992. Leonid Levitsky. "Estonia Divided into Citizens and Aliens." (NEXIS)

SOYUZ [Moscow, in Russian]. August 1990. "The 1989 Soviet Census: Nationality Composition by Union Republics." (JPRS-UPA-90-066 4 Dec. 1990, pp. 12-13)

Swiss Review of World Affairs [Zurich, in English]. May 1991. Andreas Oplatka. "Estonians and Russians in Tallinn," pp. 4-5.

Uibopuu, Henn-Jüri. 1989 "Die Sprachgesetze der Baltischen Unionsrepubliken: Eine juristische Analyse [The Language Laws of the Baltic Republics: A Legal Analysis]". WGO Monatshefte für Osteuropäisches Recht. C.F. Müller.

The Washington Post. 30 September 1991. Mary Battiata. "Ethnic Russian Minority Tests Tolerance of Estonians." (B-Wire)

The Washington Times. 1 June 1992. Gerald Nadler. "Russians Feel Alone in Estonia."        (B-Wire)

Zakon Estonskoi Sovetskoi Sotsialisticheskoi Respubliki o Iazyke [Law of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic on Language]. 18 January 1989. Estonian Academy of Sciences, Institute for Language and Literature.